Crimes and Mercies (41 page)

56
Stüber, op. cit., p. 463.

57
Relief dates from Robert Kreider, Mennonite Member of the CRALOG, interview, September 1994.

58
It officially began on 19 February 1946, with at first eleven and later sixteen member organizations (
Mitgliedsverbände
) of American welfare agencies (
Wohlfahrtspflege
). But it was not
really until autumn 1946 that the necessary aid was sent to Germany.

59
Stüber,
Die Zeitschrift der Geselleschaft für Kanada Studien
, p. 42.

60
Hoover,
An American Epic
, Vol. IV, pp. 162–3.

61
Patterson to Anderson, 5 May 1947, Patterson Papers, LC.

62
Patterson to Marshall, 13 June 1947, Patterson Papers, LC.

63
This was in the spring of 1946. Hoover, op. cit., p. 164.

64
Quoted by Stüber in
Der Kampf gegen den Hunger
, pp. 523–4, from the files of the Kieler Stadtmission.

65
Col. G. W. McPherson in Berlin, 19 March 1946, to Norman Robertson, Ottawa. In RG 24, Vol. 5717, NAC.

66
United Nations,
World Food Appraisal for 1946–1947
, Washington, 26 December 1946.

67
King,
Diaries
, 4 August 1946, p. 700, NAC.

68
Notes of Cabinet Meeting, 29 March 1946, by Robert Patterson. Patterson Papers, LC.

69
Stüber, op. cit., p. 763.

70
Quoted in John Unruh,
In the Name of Christ
, p. 146.

71
Quoted in Stüber article in
Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Kanada-
Studien
, p. 48.

72
Unruh, op. cit., p. 147.

73
Ibid., p. 149. This number was later increased to 5,400: see Stüber
Der Kampf gegen den Hunger
, p. 537.

74
Stüber, op. cit., p. 400.

75
Unruh, op. cit., p. 151.

76
In June 1947 the Danish Red Cross co-ordinated with the ‘Hoover-Spende’ in a feeding program for 66,500 schoolchildren in Schleswig-Holstein, which included approximately seventeen areas (
Gebiete
) and cities (
Staedte
). Stüber, op. cit., p. 502.

77
Proudfoot,
European Refugees
, pp. 186–8.

78
See Bacque,
Other Losses
, Chapter 6.

79
See
Twenty-five Silver Years, 1939–1964
, pamphlet published by the Irish Red Cross Society, pp. 11, 12. Archives of the Irish Red Cross, Dublin.

80
Stüber, op. cit., p. 571.

81
Herr Körschner’s note in the Stadtarchiv Bonn ‘Schul-kinderspeisung’, kindly supplied by Annaliese Barbara Baum of Bonn.

82
Stüber, op. cit., p. 576.

83
Interview with Stephen Cary, European Commissioner of the American Friends Service Committee, November 1986.

84
See Bacque,
Other Losses
, Chapter 6. Trainloads were refused at Augsburg and elsewhere. See also ICRC,
Report of the
International Committee of the Red Cross on its Activities During the
Second World War
, p. 388.

85
ICRC, op. cit., p. 426.

86
Farquharson,
The Western Allies and the Politics of Food
, p. 92.

87
Unruh, op. cit., p. 152.

88
Paul Nitze, quoted in Gregory A. Fossedal,
Our Finest Hour
, p. 227.

89
Bevin is quoted in Fossedal, op. cit., p. 240.

90
Ibid., p. 231.

91
Acheson here paraphrases Joseph Jones and Francis Russell, who were informed by Will Clayton. In Fossedal, op. cit., p. 221.

92
Hoover,
An American Epic
, Vol. IV, pp. 165–6.

93
Ibid., p. 163.

94
King Papers, C255123, NAC.

95
FEC Papers, Box 23, HIA.

96
Aloys Algen to Hoover, 5 February 1948, FEC Papers, Box 23, HIA.

97
Elfrieda and Peter Dyck, op. cit., pp. 141–3.

98
Quoted in de Zayas,
Nemesis at Potsdam
, p. 139.

99
Maurice A. Pope,
Memoirs
(University of Toronto Press, 1962), p. 309.

100
De Zayas, op. cit., p. 140.

101
Ibid., p. 139.

102
Gary Dean Best,
Herbert Hoover: The Post-Presidential Years
, Vol. II, p. 324. See also Gimbel, op. cit.

103
Report of conversation with A. H. Graubart, Captain US Navy Intelligence, Berlin, Lochner Reports, FEC Papers.

104
Gimbel, op. cit., p. 134.

105
Ibid., p. 135.

106
Gimbel, ‘The American Exploitation of German Technical Know-how After World War Two’ in
Political Science Quarterly
, Vol. 105, No. 2, 1990, p. 300.

107
Gimbel,
Science, Technology and Reparations
, p. 160.

108
Gimbel,
The Origins of the Marshall Plan
, p. 273. Emphasis in original.

109
 
According to the curator David Wigdor in the manuscript division of the Library of Congress, only one scholar has ever worked on these papers, a graduate student from Stanford, whose work has not been published.

110
Recipients’ copies of the letters to such figures as Marshall, Anderson and Truman may have been consulted by scholars in other archives. However, there is no evidence that the important memos, which do not exist elsewhere, have ever been used by scholars until now. Finally, the general tenor of the sections on food – that the difficulties for Patterson lay in getting ‘priority’ or ‘fiscal’ resources to ship available food – has to the best of my knowledge never appeared in print before now.

111
Gimbel,
The Origins of the Marshall Plan
, p. 174.

112
Ibid., p. 174.

113
The dollar figures for the 1945–50 period must be multiplied by six to seven times for the equivalent in 1997. Felix Rohatyn in the
New York Review of Books
, 14 July 1994, p. 49.

114
Martin Gilbert,
The Road to Victory
, p. 1181.

115
Gimbel,
Science, Technology and Reparations
, p. 152. He bases this on a manuscript giving the history of FIAT (Field Information Agency, Technical) which he discovered in the archive of the OMGUS historical office, RG 319 CMH, NARS.

116
Gimbel, ‘The American Exploitation of German Technical Know-how After World War Two’, p. 305.

117
Gimbel,
A German Community Under American Occupation
, pp. 126–7.

118
See Voltaire,
The Calas Affair: A Treatise on Tolerance
.

119
Gimbel, op. cit., pp. 1ff.

120
Mark Roseman, ‘The Uncontrolled Economy’ in
Reconstruction
in Post-war Germany: British Occupation Policy and the Western
Zones 1945–1955
, edited by Ian D. Turner (New York: Berg, 1989), pp. 102ff.

121
Gimbel, op. cit., p. 81.

122
The Tsarist regime, once regarded as the most tyrannous in Europe, had on average 94,769 prisoners both political and criminal in its notorious jails in 1881. The population then was around 104 million. This was a particularly bad year for the Russians, because Tsar Alexander II had just been assassinated, and the country was swarming with revolutionary movements.

The United States in the latest year reported, 2005, had 2,193,798 people behind bars, i.e.
seven times as many per capita
as Tsarist Russia
in one of its most violent years. The United States has today far more people per capita behind bars than Nazi Germany had in 1939, when there were approximately 125,000 criminals on average in German conventional jails.

This was also a particularly dangerous year for the Germans: one of their senior officials abroad had recently been assassinated, there were plots against the life of the Chancellor, war was anticipated. The Gestapo had in 1936 around 6,000 prisoners in three camps; in April 1939, they had 162,739 persons in six concentration camps including Buchenwald and Dachau, in ‘protective custody’, who were mainly political prisoners. Whether the German figure is from 1936 or 1939, the Americans today still have more prisoners per capita than Nazi Germany in peacetime. Statistics are blind to the horrors of Nazi racial policies, which have no counterpart in the US. But it must also be remembered that the American prison population has a disproportionate number of blacks, hispanics and native/aborigines whose leaders have been saying for many years that they are the victims of systemic discrimination, leading to increased death rates in their
barrios
, ghettoes and reservations, and also to higher rates of incarceration and longer sentences for crimes than whites receive for similar offences.

For Russia:
The Ministry of Internal Affairs: A Historical Review,
1802–1902
(St Petersburg: Printer of the Ministry of the Interior, 1902), p. 135.

Russian population estimate of 104 million is pro-rated from 1858 census of 74 million compared with 1897 census of 125 million. Russian population figures from (1858)
Encyclopedic
Dictionary
of F. A. Brockhaus and I. A. Efron, St Petersburg, 1899, Volume 27A, p. 75. And 1897 from T. Shanin,
Russia as a
Developing Society
(New Haven: Yale, 1986). With thanks to Martin Reesink.

The German figures are from Professor Peter Hoffmann and from a professor who has asked not to be named, who says there were approximately 6,500 political prisoners in KZL (concentration camps) in 1936, apart from the criminals in conventional jails. The Gestapo policy varied considerably, becoming much
more repressive through denunciations from 1936 on, so an average from 1936–39 would be appropriate.

Re autumn 1939: Professors J. Noakes and G. Pridham in their book
Nazism, 1919–1945
(New York: Schocken, 1988), have estimated that there were only 25,000 people imprisoned in September 1939, in the same six concentration camps (p. 520, Vol. II). The Report by the Chief of the SS Economic and Administrative Main Office of 30 April 1942 showed that there were 21,400 prisoners in the same six camps at September 1939.

Trial of the Major War Criminals
, p. 363.

Re spring 1939 figures from Günther Wiesenborn:
Der Lautlose
Aufstand. Bericht über die Widerstandsbewegung des deutschen
Volkes, 1933–1945
, p. 30. Quoted in Peter Hoffmann,
The History
of the German Resistance
, pp. 15–16. On p. 16, line 10, of Hoffmann, please note that ‘sentence’ should read ‘indictment’.

The average influx into political imprisonment was 37,500 persons per year from 1933 to 1939.

Chapter VIII: History and Forgetting (pp. 172–184)

1
Klaus Schwabe,
Woodrow Wilson, Revolutionary Germany and
Peacemaking, 1918–1919
(Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press), p. 89.

2
Joseph Tumulty to Wilson: Arthur Walworth,
Woodrow Wilson
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin), Vol. II, p. 187.

3
See Bischof and Ambrose,
Eisenhower and the German POWs
.

4
The book making the charge was
Hitler’s Willing Executioners:
Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust
(London: Little, Brown, 1996) by Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, which in its first year of publication had sold 20,000 copies in Britain.

5
Klemens von Kemperer,
German Resistance Against Hitler
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), p. 386.

6
Conor Cruise O’Brien, quoting an earlier essay, in his book
On
the Eve of the Millennium
, p. 141.

7
Murphy to State, 12 October 1945, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. 2, pp. 1290–2. Quoted in de Zayas,
Nemesis at Potsdam
, p. 115. Bertrand Russell in England wrote strong letters of protest to
The Times
and the
New Leader
. De Zayas, op. cit., pp. 108–9.

8
De Zayas to the author, January 1995.

9
 
Times Literary Supplement
, 14–20 September 1990.

10
 
New York Times Book Review
, 25 February 1991, p. 1.

11
See Ramsey Clark,
The Fire This Time: US War Crimes in the
Gulf
.

12 Stanley Kutler, Professor of History and Law, University of Wisconsin, in the
New Yorker
, 14 December 1992, p. 91.

13 David Irving,
Goebbels
, p. 418.

14 Konrad Adenauer,
Memoirs, 1945–1953
, p. 148.

15
See Philip Hallie,
Lest Innocent Blood Be Shed
; Peter Hellman,
Avenue of the Righteous
; and Bacque,
Just Raoul
.

Appendices (pp. 185–211)

1
Brian R. Mitchell,
International Historical Statistics
, pp. 102, 109.

2
See Note 27, Chapter VI. The UK figure is also derived from Murphy Papers, Box 62, HIA, plus Griffith to McCahom, September 1946 et seq., State Central Decimal File F11.62114/12-145 to 3146. State Department Archives, Washington. Total equals 435,000 at March 1947 and repatriations were at the rate of 15,000 per month since October meaning that the original October total must have been 510,000. Also see
The Times
, 22 August 1946.

3
The West German government has estimated a death total of 710,000 for the whole year of 1945. The proportion who died from the beginning of August to the end of December 1945 is about 296,000. For all of 1946, they officially reported 588,331, of which some 490,000 occurred in January to October 1946. So in the whole period August 1945 to October 1946, the official figure is about 786,000.

4
The 1946 figure is an estimate, according to the Statistisches Bundesamt.

5
CFM Papers, HIA.