Dancing in the Glory of Monsters (68 page)

16
Letter from the Commissaire de Zone d’Uvira, October 26, 1995, quoted by Ruhimbika,
Les Banyamulenge
, 32.

17
A group of Banyamulenge leaders, led by Dugu wa Mulenge, their only provincial parliamentarian, wrote to denounce this recruitment of Banyamulenge. The estimates for the number of Banyamulenge in the RPF come from Ruhimbika,
Les Banyamulenge
(300) and Serukiza (1,000).

CHAPTER 5

1
Much of this chapter is based on the author’s interview with Deogratias Bugera, Johannesburg, April 2008. Thomas Ntiratimana, Bugera’s former chief of staff, also provided helpful information.

2
Author’s interview with former AFDL member, Kinshasa, November 2007.

3
The exact size is a matter of contention. According to Brooke Grundfest Schoepf and Claude Schoepf, “Gender, Land, and Hunger in Eastern Zaire,” in
African Food Systems in Crisis
, vol. 2,
Contending with Change
, ed. Rebecca Huss-Ashmore and Solomon H. Katz, Food and Nutrition in History and Anthropology, vol. 7 (New York: Gordon and Breach, 1990), King Leopold ceded 12 million hectares, or 46,000 square miles, to the National Committee for the Kivus, a state agency, but that was soon reduced to 300,000 hectares, which is a tenth of the size of Belgium.

4
Séverin Mugangu, “Les politiques legislatives congolaise et rwandaise relatives aux refugiés et émigrés rwandais,” in
Exilé, réfugiés et deplacés en Afrique Centrale et orientale
, ed. André Guichaoua (Paris: Karthala, 2004), 639.

5
Paul Mathieu and Mafikiri Tsongo, “Enjeux fonciers, déplacements de population et escalades conflictuelles (1930–1995),” in
Conflits et guerres au Kivu et dans la région des grands lacs: Entre tensions locales et escalade régionale
, ed. P. Mathieu and Jean-Claude Willame, Cahiers Africains 39 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999), 20–25.

6
Jean-Pierre Pabanel, “La question de la nationalité au Kivu,”
Politique Africaine
(1993): 41, 43.

7
There was no effort to implement the law until 1989, when the government began to identify voters. This process provoked violence—Banyarwanda in Masisi burned down registration booths.

8
The UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Zaire put the figure at 3,000, while Amnesty International suggested it could be as high as 7,000, citing humanitarian officials Roberto Garretón, UN Special Rapporteur,
Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Zaire
, December 23, 1994, paragraph 90; Amnesty International,
Zaire: Violence Against Democracy
, September 16, 1993.

9
Bugera was in touch with two leading Rwandan officers who were coordinating these operations, Major Jack Nziza and Colonel Kayumba Nyamwasa, both of whom would play major roles in the subsequent Rwandan invasion of the Congo.

10
Joel Boutroue,
Missed Opportunities: The Role of the International Community in the Return of the Rwandan Refugees from Eastern Zaire, July 1994–December 1996
, Rosemarie Rogers Working Paper 1, Inter-University Committee on International Migration, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 1998.

11
This was later confirmed by documents they recovered after they had captured the refugee camps.

12
Anonymous tract written by the Collective of Congolese Patriots (COPACO), dated February 10, 2000.

CHAPTER 6

1
Erik Kennes with Jean Omasombo,
Essai biographique sur Laurent Désiré Kabila
(Paris: L’Harmattan, 2003), 29.

2
Ibid., 29.

3
Quoted by Piero Gleijeses,
Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976
, Envisioning Cuba (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 72.

4
Kennes,
Essai biographique
, 72.

5
Ernesto “Che” Guevara,
The African Dream: The Diaries of the Revolutionary War in the Congo
, trans. Patrick Camiller (New York: Grove, 2000), 6.

6
Ibid., 86.

7
Ibid., 244.

8
William Galvez,
Le rêve Africain de Che
(Antwerp: EPO, 1998), 302, quoted by Kennes,
Essai biographique
, 174.

9
Wilungula Cosma,
Le Maquis Kabila, Fizi 1967–1986
(Paris: L’Harmattan, 1997), 112; Kennes,
Essai biographique
, 264.

10
Kennes,
Essai biographique
, 302.

11
Jean-Baptiste Sondji, a hospital director in Kinshasa who went on to become health minister under Laurent Kabila, met with Kahinda Otafire, one of President Museveni’s point men on the Congo, in Brussels as early as 1993 to discuss regime change in his country. He spoke to Tshisekedi about Uganda’s proposal, but the opposition leader didn’t want to have anything to do with an armed insurrection. Patrick Karegeya confirmed this. Author’s interview with Jean-Baptiste Sondji, Kinshasa, February 2008.

12
Lemera is a town in South Kivu where the first AFDL training camp would be located. Coincidentally, the neighborhood in Kigali where some of the Congolese rebels were staying was also called Lemera.

CHAPTER 7

1
This description comes from Thomas Ntiratimana, chief of staff of Deo Bugera and later vice governor of South Kivu, whom I interviewed in Kinshasa, July 2006, as well as General Malik Kijege, a leading Munyamulenge commander, whom I interviewed in Kinshasa, November 2007.

2
“West ‘ Fooled’ by Banyamulenge,”
Voix du Zaire
, Bukavu, October 25, 1996.

3
Author’s interview with Bembe civil society activist, Baraka, March 2008.

4
Manassé Ruhimbika,
Les Banyamulenge entre deux guerres
(Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 47.

5
Ibid., 49.

6
Alex’s name has been changed to protect his identity.

7
See also
Report of the Mapping Exercise Documenting the Most Serious Violations of Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law Committed Within the Territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Between March 1993 and June 2003
, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, October 2010, 74. The death toll given by UN investigators was 152 for this incident.

8
Several days later, a German journalist ventured into the squalid camp on the Rwandan side of the border, to where the Tutsi survivors had fled. Amid the blue UNHCR tents, a wizened man approached him with a black book. Musafiri Mushambaro, the president of the Uvira community there, paged through the book, counting the dead: “Sange 20, Muturure 9, in Burugera 3, Lweba 89, Kamanyola 37.” He had 217 names in his book, all men. They were separated from their families, driven together, and shot, he said.

9
According to a UN report published in 2010, 101 people died that day in Abala.
Report of the Mapping Exercise
, 135.

CHAPTER 8

1
The information on Prosper Nabyolwa’s experiences stems from a series of interviews by the author with General Nabyolwa in Kinshasa in July 2005, December 2007, and July 2008.

2
“Declaration of the Population of South Kivu Following the ‘March of Anger, Protest and Denunciation Against the Aggression by Tutsi Rwandans of Which Zaire and Its People Have Become Victims,’” Bukavu, September 18, 1996, quoted by Olivier Lanotte,
Guerres sans frontiers: De Joseph-Désiré Mobutu a Joseph Kabila
(Brussels: GRIP, 2003), 42.

3
Demain le Congo
, no. 244 (1997): 7, quoted by Isidore Ndaywel,
Histoire Générale du Congo: De l’héritage ancien à la République démocratique
(Paris: Duculot, 1998).

4
Author’s interviews with hospital staff, Lemera, March 2008; Amnesty International,
Zaire: Violent Persecution by State and Armed Groups,
November 29, 1996, 5.

5
“A Hole in the Middle of Africa,”
Economist
, July 8, 1995.

6
Library of Congress,
Country Study: Zaire
, 1994, 312.

7
Crawford Young and Thomas Turner,
The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), 275.

8
Honoré Ngbanda Nzambo,
Ainsi sonne le glas: Les derniers jours du Maréchal Mobutu
(Paris: Editions Gideppe, 1998), 46 (my translation).

9
William Reno, “Sovereignty and Personal Rule in Zaire,”
African Studies Quarterly
1, no. 3 (1997),
www.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v1/3/4.htm
.

10
Author’s interview with General Prosper Nabyolwa in Kinshasa, December 2007.

11
Young and Turner,
Rise and Decline
, 259.

12
Michael G. Schatzberg,
The Dialectics of Oppression in Zaire
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 59.

13
Library of Congress,
Zaire
, 303.

14
Author’s interview with José Endundo, owner of a large aviation company, Kinshasa, December 2007.

15
Nzambo,
Ainsi sonne le glas
, 88.

16
Author’s interview with Deo Bugera, Johannesburg, March 2008.

17
Author’s interview with Patrick Karegeya, Dar es Salaam, January 2008.

18
“Plus jamais le Congo,”
Observatoire de l’Afrique centrale
6, no. 10, March 4, 2003,
www.obsac.com
.

19
Cherif Ouazani, “James Kabarebe et la mémoire de la guerre de libération de l’AFDL,”
Jeune Afrique Intelligent
, April 29, 2002 (my translation).

20
When Joseph Kabila came to power in 2001, some of his closest military advisors were former Katangan Tigers.

21
Author’s interview with former FAR commander, Kinshasa, July 2009.

22
Stephen Smith, “L’Armada de mercenaires au Zaïre: Commandés par un Belge, 280 ‘affreux’ mènent la contre-offensive,”
Libération
, January 24, 1997; Philippe Chapleau and Francois Misser,
Mercenaires S.A.
(Paris: Desclée de Brouwer, 1998), Chapter 6.

23
Gérard Prunier,
Africa’s World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 129.

24
Quoted in the film
Afrique en morceaux
(1999), directed by Jihan El Tahran.

25
Gordana Igri, “Alleged ‘Assassins’ Were No Strangers to France,” in
Balkan Crisis Report
, Institute for War and Peace Reporting, November 26, 1999.

26
James Astill’s interview with General James Kabarebe, Kigali, May 2004.

27
Author’s interview with Colonel Fely Bikaba, Kinshasa, July 2006.

28
Prunier,
Africa’s World War
, 142.

29
“Canadian Deal Worth Millions to Zaire’s Rebels: $50 Million Investment Likely to Find Its Way into Kabila’s War Chest,” Associated Press, May 10, 1997.

30
Mark Sherman, “McKinney Reassured About Zairian Refugees, Elections,”
Atlanta Constitution
, May 14, 1997.

CHAPTER 9

1
Robert Gribbin,
In the Aftermath of Genocide
, U.S. Congress Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Operations and Human Rights, December 4, 1996, 198.

2
No one really knew exactly how many refugees remained in Zaire. At one point, the UN refugee agency suggested the number could be as high as 600,000, the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs said 439,500, while the U.S. general Edwin Smith put the figure at 202,000 and the Canadian general Maurice Baril at 165,000. Filip Reyntjens,
The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 85–86.

3
Quoted by Johan Pottier,
Re-imagining Rwanda: Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 175.