Dancing in the Glory of Monsters (67 page)

10
Straus, “How Many Perpetrators?,” 94. Other authors contest this figure; the range varies from between tens of thousands to several million perpetrators.

11
Jean-Paul Kimonyo,
Un genocide populaire
(Paris: Karthala, 2008); Scott Straus,
The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006).

12
Prunier,
The Rwanda Crisis
, 100–102, 147, 148; Alison Des Forges, Eric Gillet, and Timothy Longman,
Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda
(New York: Human Rights Watch, 1999), 506–507.

13
Austin,
Rearming with Impunity
,
www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Rwanda1.htm
, n25.

14
Des Forges, Gillet, and Longman,
Leave None to Tell the Story
, 506.

15
Linda Melvern,
A People Betrayed: The Role of the West in Rwanda’s Genocide
(London: Zed Books, 2000), 131.

16
African Rights,
Rwanda: The Insurgency in the Northwest
(London: African Rights, 1998), 103.

17
African Rights,
Rwanda: Death, Despair, and Defiance
, rev. ed. (London: African Rights, 1995), 657, quoted by Prunier,
The Rwanda Crisis
, 314.

18
Amos Elon, “Introduction,” in Arendt,
Eichmann in Jerusalem
, xiv.

CHAPTER 2

1
Gérard Prunier,
Africa’s World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 30.

2
Quoted by Joel Boutroue,
Missed Opportunities: The Role of the International Community in the Return of the Rwandan Refugees from Eastern Zaire, July 1994–December 1996
, Rosemarie Rogers Working Paper 1, Inter-University Committee on International Migration, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 1998.

3
Beatrice Umutesi,
Fuir ou Mourir au Zaire
(Paris: L’Harmattan, 2000), 95.

4
Prunier,
Africa’s World War
, 26, quoting UNHCR field notes.

5
Johan de Smedt, “Child Marriages in Rwandan Refugee Camps,”
Africa: Journal of the International African Institute
68, no. 2 (1998): 211–237.

6
Umutesi,
Fuir ou Mourir au Zaire
, 93, 94.

7
Breaking the Cycle: Calls for Action in the Rwandese Refugee Camps in Tanzania and Zaire
, Doctors Without Borders, November 10, 1994,
http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/article.cfm?id=1465
.

8
John Eriksson, “Synthesis Report” of the
International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience
, Danish International Development Assistance, March 1996, 29, quoted by Fiona Terry,
Condemned to Repeat? The Paradox of Humanitarian Action
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 175.

9
Umutesi,
Fuir ou Mourir au Zaire
, 88.

10
Terry,
Condemned to Repeat?
186, 187.

11
Ibid., 204, 205.

12
Ibid., 190.

13
Author’s off-the-record interview with a UN official, New York, July 2007.

14
Kurt Mills, “Refugee Return from Zaire to Rwanda: The Role of UNHCR,” in
War and Peace in Zaire/Congo: Analyzing and Evaluating Intervention, 1996–1997
, ed. Howard Adelman and Govind C. Rao (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004), 163–185;
Final Report of the United Nations Technical Mission on the Security Situation in the Rwandan Refugee Camps in Zaire
, 1994,
www.grandslacs.net/doc/2745.pdf
.

15
Boutroue,
Missed Opportunities
, 62–64.

16
Quoted by Boutroue,
Missed Opportunities
, 31, 32.

17
Terry,
Condemned to Repeat?
171.

18
Boutroue,
Missed Opportunities
.

19
Rwanda/Zaire: Rearming with Impunity
, Human Rights Watch Arms Project, May 1995.

20
The Great Lakes region of Africa consists of the countries located around lakes in the Great Rift Valley. The region is loosely defined but usually includes Uganda, Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Kenya, and Tanzania.

21
Gérard Prunier,
The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 279n139.

22
Agence France-Presse, Brussels, October 29, 1996.

23
Quoted by Simon Massey, “Operation Assurance: The Greatest Humanitarian Intervention that Never Happened,”
Journal of Humanitarian Assistance
, February 15, 1998, jha.ac/1998/02/15/operation-assurance-the-greatest-intervention-that-never-happened.

24
Ibid.

CHAPTER 3

1
Stephen Kinzer,
A Thousand Hills: Rwanda’s Rebirth and the Man Who Dreamed It
(Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons, 2008), 254.

2
Philip Gourevitch, “After Genocide,”
Transition
72 (1996): 188.

3
Kinzer,
A Thousand Hills
, 232.

4
Gérard Prunier,
The Rwanda Crisis: A History of the Genocide
(London: Hurst & Co., 1997), 62.

5
Richard Grant, “Paul Kagame: Rwanda’s Redeemer or Ruthless Dictator?”
Daily Telegraph
(London), July 22, 2010.

6
“When Kagame Turned 50,”
New Times
(Kigali), October 25, 2007.

7
Author’s interview with Andrew Mwenda, New Haven, Connecticut, March 2010.

8
Author’s interview with former RPF soldier, Nairobi, July 2007.

9
Author’s telephone interview with U.S. intelligence officer, June 2009.

10
Steve Vogel, “Student of Warfare Graduates on Battlefields of Rwanda; Rebel Leader Ran a Textbook Operation,”
Washington Post
, August 25, 1994.

11
Prunier,
The Rwanda Crisis
, 62.

12
Filip Reyntjens,
La Guerre des Grands Lacs
(Paris: L’Harmattan, 1999), 52;
Report of the Joint Mission Charged with Investigating Allegations of Massacres and Other Human Rights Violations Occurring in Eastern Zaire (Now Democratic Republic of the Congo) Since September 1996
, United Nations General Assembly, A/51/942, July 2, 1997, 17, 18.

13
Quoted in the film
Afrique en morceaux
(1999), directed by Jihan El Tahran.

14
Peter Rosenblum, “Irrational Exuberance: The Clinton Administration in Africa,”
Current History
(May 2002): 197.

15
The Ugandan rebels included the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), a brutal rebel group that initially drew support from the Acholi community of northern Uganda, who had made up a large part of Milton Obote’s army and had been marginalized after Museveni’s arrival in power. The LRA were not yet active in Zaire, but several other Ugandan rebel groups were, with support from both Mobutu and the Khartoum government. Shortly afterwards, Sudanese intelligence operatives based out of northeastern Zaire helped create the West Nile Bank Liberation Front (WNBLF), made up of former partisans and soldiers close to former Ugandan dictator Idi Amin. In addition, Sudan lent support to several other rebel groups, including two small Ugandan Islamist organizations, the Tabliq and the Uganda Muslim Liberation Army (UMLA), both of which claimed to be outraged by the alleged massacre of Muslims at the hands of Museveni. To complicate the picture further, there was also a group of leaders from the Baganda community, the Allied Democratic Movement (ADM), who attacked Museveni for continuing to repress the kingdom of Baganda, the largest precolonial monarchy in the region, and also began to recruit soldiers. As neither ADM nor UMLA had significant grassroots support, the Sudanese put them in contact with remnants of the National Army for the Liberation of Uganda (NALU), a rebel militia based among the Konjo ethnic community in the Ruwenzori Mountains of western Uganda, who had felt marginalized from Uganda politics since the colonial era. Together, these three groups formed the Allied Democratic Forces (ADF).

16
“Congo Rebels Were Museveni’s Idea,”
Monitor
(Kampala), June 1, 1999.

17
“Supplementary Report of the Monitoring Mechanism on Sanctions Against UNITA,” Security Council Document S/2001/966, October 8, 2001.

18
The figure for displaced people comes from the UN consolidated appeal for Angola, January–December 1996; military expenditure information comes from the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI).

19
Matthew Hart, “How to Steal a Diamond,”
Atlantic Monthly
, March 1999.

20
Author’s interview with Rwandan intelligence official, South Africa, January 2009.

21
Author’s interview with Don Steinberg, former U.S. ambassador to Angola, New York, June 2007.

22
“Kabila Shouts Down Museveni,”
Monitor
(Kampala), June 2, 1999.

23
Thabo Mbeki, “Statement on Behalf of the African National Congress, on the Occasion of the Adoption by the Constitutional Assembly of‘The Republic of South Africa Constitution Bill 1996.’”

CHAPTER 4

1
Author’s interview with human rights activist, Bukavu, March 2008.

2
BBC monitoring of
Voix du Zaire
newscast, October 9, 1996. His comments about six days were made off air to one of the international journalists.

3
See, for example, his submission to the Goma peace conference in 2008: “Reaction de Monsieur Lwabanji Lwasi Ngabo, Vice-Gouverneur Honoraire du Sud Kivu, à la declaration du porte parole des Banyamulenge à la conference de Goma,” January 15, 2008.

4
Much of this chapter is based on the author’s interview with Serukiza, Kinshasa, November 2007. He passed away not long afterwards from complications from cancer.

5
Isidore Ndaywel,
Histoire Générale du Congo: De l’héritage ancien à la République démocratique
(Paris: Duculot, 1998), 382–383 (my translation). Also see Koen Vlassenroot, “Citizenship, Identity Formation and Conflict in South Kivu: The Case of the Banyamulenge,”
Review of African Political Economy
29, nos. 93–94 (2002): 499–515.

6
I owe this insight to Mauro DeLorenzo, who studied the Banyamulenge for his doctoral dissertation at Oxford University.

7
Historians of Rwanda also record emigrations from southern Rwanda toward Congo around this time
.
Catherine Newbury,
The Cohesion of Oppression: Clientship and Ethnicity in Rwanda, 1860–1960
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 48–49.

8
Lazare Sebitereko Rukundwa, “Justice and Righteousness in Matthean Theology and Its Relevance to the Banyamulenge Community,” PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, November 2005, 317.

9
Ibid., 292.

10
Ibid., 129.

11
Quoted by Cosma Wilungula,
Le Maquis Kabila, Fizi 1967–1986
(Paris: L’Harmattan, 1997), 24 (my translation).

12
Manassé Ruhimbika,
Les Banyamulenge entre deux guerres
(Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 25.

13
Leslie Crawford, “Hutus See France as Their Saviour,”
Financial Times
(London), June 27, 1994.

14
Anzuluni Bembe, the president of the national assembly and himself a Bembe from South Kivu, authored the decree, implying that the Banyamulenge were Rwandan immigrants who had fraudulently acquired Congolese citizenship.

15
Haut Conseil de la République, Parlement de Transition, “Resolution sur les réfugiés et population déplacés dans les regions du Nord et du Sud-Kivu,” signed in Kinshasa, April 28, 1995.