Europe: A History (279 page)

trade 379, 513

(see also
Austrian Netherlands, Belgium, Spanish Netherlands)

Nevsky, Alexander, Prince 334

New Model Army 506, 552

Newcomen, Thomas 680

Newman, John H. 795, 796

Newton, Isaac 598–9

Ney, Michel 755, 761

Nibelungen, Legend of
230–1
, 1206

Nicean Creed 205–6, 209, 259

Nicholas II, Pope 336

Nicholas II, Tsar of Russia 903, 907, 914, 915, 916, 931

Nietzsche, Friedrich 854, 856, 859–60

Nietzsche-Foerster, Elizabeth 859

Nijmegen, Congress of (1678–9) 624

Nikitin, Afanasii 467

Nikon, Patriarch 558

Nikopolis, siege of
391

Nine Years’ War 624–5

NKVD 1003, 1039

Nobel, Alfred B.
873

Nobel Peace Prize
873

Nomads 215–20, 296–8, 332–3, 364–6, 386

Non-Indo European peoples 219–20

Normandy 293, 339, 354–5, 423–5, 1039–40, 1207

Normanist Theory
656–7

Normans 336–9, 339, 926

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO) 1070–1, 1073, 1074, 1075, 1084, 1085, 1086, 1087, 1102, 1109, 1111, 1116, 1334

Northern Ireland
(see
Ulster) Norway

language
738
, 815–16

taken by Sweden 737, 762

World War II 1005

(see also
Denmark, Scandinavia, Vikings)

Nostradamus, Michel de
546–7

Novalis, Friedrich von Hardenberg 683

Novel, The 444, 498–9, 581, 589, 606, 608, 788,

825, 867

Novgorod
327
, 334, 457, 464, 466, 557

Novotny, Antonin 1105

Numeracy
79–80
, 349,
1242–3

Nuremberg 1051

Nuremberg Laws 974, 1051

Nuremberg Trials 1021, 1048–55

Nystadt, Treaty of (1721) 653

O’Connell, Daniel 831

Obrenovič, Milos 644

Odessa 655

Oedipus, King of Thebes
120–1

Oghams (Ogam)
1234–5

Oldenburg, House of 640

Oliva, Treaty of (1660) 554, 556, 557

Olivares, Gaspar de Guzman 534

Omar Khayyam 333

Onomastics 86–9, 310

Opera 532, 1278

Operation Barbarossa 1013, 1015–16

Operation Keelhaul
1046–7

Operation Overlord 1039–40

Operation Sealion 1008

Operation Torch 1030–1

Orange, House of 539, 640, 1254

Orange-Nassau, House of
527–9

Orange Order
527–9

Orange, Principality of
527–9
, 1254

Oresme, Nicholas 436

Orff, Carl 956

Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Development (OECD) 1064, 1065

Orientalism 19, 560

Orlov, Alexei, Count 652

Orthodox Christianity

iconography
247–8

in the Balkans 644, 646

medieval 265–72, 328–32, 392–3, 446, 448

nineteenth century 795, 799

(see also
Bulgaria, Greece, Kievan Rus’, Lithuania, Romania, Russian Orthodox Church, Serbia) Ortygia 141

Ossian 613–14

Ostrogoths 215, 224, 229, 232, 234

Otto I, King of the Hellenes 834

Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor 316–17, 1246

Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor 317, 1207

Ottoman Empire

Balkan nationalism and 834

collapse (1918) 937–8

conquest of Constantinople (1453) 448, 450

decline 643–4, 646, 869, 870, 874, 1284, 1309

early modern age 558, 560

Phanariot regime 644

rise of 386, 1259

under Köprülüs 641

World War I and 901, 902,
907

•Young Turks’ 874

O.U.P. 17, 262

Oxford 88, 343–4, 361, 435, 552, 793–4, 796, 1130

Ovid (Ovidius Naso) 178

Pacifism 874–5

Paganism 72–3, 110–14, 160, 161–2, 226–7, 280–1,

429–30, 432, 1207, 1234–5

Paine, Tom 679

Painting 247–8, 441, 473–6, 474–5, 586–9, 688, 787–8, 806–7, 862–5, 866, 953–6, 1205–12

Palach, Jan 1107

Palaeography 241, 1217, 1226–7

Palaeologi Dynasty 385–6

Palaeologos, Constantine XI, Byzantine

Emperor 448

Paleologos, John VIII, Byzantine Emperor 446

Palaeologos, Zoe 455, 457, 461

Pale of Settlement (Ireland) 409, 549

Pale of Settlement, Jewish (in Russia) 661, 795,

842, 1311

Palladio, Andrea 481

Palm,J.W. 733

Pan-Slavism 817

Pankhurst, Emmeline 958

Papacy 1224–5

Avignon exile 403

conclave
398

‘Donation of Constantine’ 290, 477, 1206

Franks and 288–90, 298, 302

Holy Office 497

Index
260–1
, 497, 1274

Infallibility 796, 797

Inquisition 437, 453, 497, 498–9

medieval 292, 298, 302, 336, 339, 342, 397–8, 401, 403

origins of 203, 257, 270, 273

Papal Supremacy 339, 342, 401

schism 417, 419

Syllabus
800–1

‘Vatican II’Council 1079

Papal State

decline of 639

demise of 731, 824

establishment of 290, 397–8

Papen, Franz von 967, 969

Paper
350

Papyrus 137

Paracelsus (Philipus von Hohenheim)
489–90

Paris Commune (1871) 803, 836, 869

Paris Peace Conference (1919) 926–8, 941–3

Paris Peace Conference (1946) 1058–9

Paris, liberation of (1944) 104

Paris, Louvre 722

Paris, Peace of (1856) 870

Parthenopian Republic 731

Pascal, Blaise 509–10, 621

Passarowitz, Treaty of (1718) 643

Passy, Colloquy of (1561) 506

Patarenes 333–3

Patmos 196

Patriarchy 72–3, 89, 92

Patton, General George 1042

Paul I, Tsar of Russia 652, 726, 739

Paul II, Pope 455, 457

Paul III, Pope 496, 511

Paul IV, Pope 484, 496

Paul V, Pope 571–2

Paul VI, Pope 1079

Paulus, Friedrich von 1031–2

Pavia, Battle of (1525) 544, 545

Peasants 587–8, 1212, 1292

Peasants’War 485, 488

Peasants’Revolt 417

Pechenegs (Patzinaks) 334

Pelagius 264–5

Peloponnesian War 98

Peppin the Short, King of the Franks 286, 287,

288, 289, 290

Percentages Agreement (1944) 1036–7

Pericles 132

Persia 98, 100, 102, 104, 244, 245

Persian Wars 98, 100, 102

Pétain, Henri 921, 1006, 1060

Peter I, Tsar of Russia 649, 652–4, 659

Peter II, Tsar of Russia 652

Peter III, Tsar of Russia 652

Pétion de Villeneuve, Jérome 702

Petit, General 750

Petöfi, Sandor 804, 805

Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) 399, 400, 473, 477

Petrovic dynasty 644, 834

Philip II, King of Spain 497, 531–2, 534, 538, 1209

Philip V, d’Anjou, King of Spain 625, 638

Philip of Macedon 102

Philippe IV le Bel, King of France 404, 406–7,

408

Philippe le Hardi, Duke of Burgundy 426

Philippe-August, King of France 355

Philosophy

early modern 477, 507–10, 520–1

Enlightenment 597–8, 683–6

Greece (ancient) 105–6, 110–11, 119, 122–6,
124

medieval 349, 433–6

Roman 176–7, 191,
213

19th Century 789–94, 802–3, 836–40, 854–9

20th Century 951–2, 1076–7

Philotheus of Pskov 464–5

Phoenicia 104, 108, 1218

Photography
770

Physics 119–22, 435, 507–10, 530–1,
598–9, 857
,

1273

Physiocrats 602, 682

Piast Dynasty 325, 428, 429

Pico della Mirandola, G. 477, 479

Piedmont 638

Pilecki, Witold 1023

Piłsudski, Józef 828, 902, 910, 925, 929, 934, 935, 937, 977, 978. 993

Piracy
561

Pirenne, Henri 257–8

Pisa 342

Pitt, William, ‘the Younger’ 721, 726, 737

Pius VI, Pope 673, 674, 731

Pius VII, Pope 711, 731, 751

Pius IX, Pope 797

Pius X, Pope 799

Pius XI, Pope 944, 952

Pius XII, Pope 1021

Pizarro, Francisco 511

Plantagenet Dynasty 408–9, 420, 423, 1252
Plato 110–11

Pleven, René 1083

Pleven Plan 1084

Pliny the Younger 189, 191

Plutarch 143, 144

Poggio, Bracdolni G. F. 477

Poitiers, battle of (732) 255

Pokrovsky M. N. 36

Poland 1316

archives
1014–15

Christianity and 324–5

Congress Kingdom of Poland (1815–74) 762, 826, 828

German occupation (1939–45) 1002

independence (1918) 925, 927

integral nationalism 828

inter-war period 978, 993, 1316

Jewish community in 978, 1208

Kingdom of Poland (1917) 910

literature 1, 481–2, 608–10

medieval 429, 1264

Mongol invasion
365

Napoleon and 736–7, 742

national movement 826, 828

Polish Legions 902, 910

post-1945 1037–8, 1044, 1060, 1061–2, 1102–3, 1107–8

post-1989 1124, 1125

Resistance 1032–3

revolution of 1989 1123

Rising of 1830 826, 1211

Rising of 1863 828

Rising of 1905 828

Solidarity Movement 1108, 1122, 1123

Soviet occupations of (1939–41), (1944–90) 1002–3

outbreak of World War II 993, 995–8, 1000–1

(see also Rzeczpospolita)

Polish-Soviet War (1919–20) 929, 934–5,
936
,937

Polish Partitions 660, 661, 663

First Partition (1773) 663–4, 679

Second Partition (1793) 701, 719

Third Partition (1795) 721–2

Polish Socialist Party 828

Polish Succession, War of 659

Political History 71, 92–3, 98–102, 136–9, 151–60, 179–82, 188–92, 238–51, 298–308, 311–16, 339–42, 577–80, 695–701, 777–80, 799–842, 943–9, 1071–6, 1089–99, 1127–9
(see also

Absolutism, Anarchism, Autocracy,

Communism, Conservatism,

Constitutional History, Democracy,

Dictatorship, Fascism, Feudalism,

Geopolitics, Imperialism, International

Relations, Law, Liberalism, Nationalism,

Propaganda, Socialism, State formation,

Totalitarianism and individual countries)

Politics 108, 122,
130–1
, 176–7,
249–50, 297, 307, 352, 456
,520–3, 602–5,
658, 696–7
, 702–15,
708, 909, 972–3, 983–4, 1007
, 1093–9, 1333

(see also
Democracy, Liberalism,

Nationalism, Propaganda, Socialism,

Totalitarianism, Utopianism)

Poliziano, Angelo 477

Polovtsians (Cumans) 334, 335

Poltava, battle of (1709) 520, 653, 657

Polybius 143, 155

Pomaks 743–4

Pombal, Sebastäo 638–9

Pompadour, Mme Jeanne de 628

Pompeii
190

Pompey (Pompeius Magnus) 156, 158

Poniatowski, Jozef 677, 719, 737

Pope, Alexander 589

Pope Joan
303

Popper, Karl 1076–7

Population
(see
Demography)

Portugal

colonialism 511, 580

de-colonization 1070

early modern 638–9

Kingdom of 393

Napoleon and 728, 733

nineteenth century 804

Republic 804

secession (1640) 534

Post-modernism 6

Potemkin, Grigory
658

Potsdam Conference (1945) 1036, 1047, 1060,

1061

Poussin, N. 1205

Prado Gallery
806–7

Pragmatic Sanction 646, 647, 648

Prague

architecture 671

aristocracy 671–2

Emperor Rudolph II 529,
530–1

Jewish community 672

Thirty Years War 563–4, 568

W. A. Mozart and 664–71

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood 787–8, 797

Prehistory 66, 69, –71, 73–4, 76, 78, 81, 83–4, 86

Bronze Age 70, 76, 78, 81

Cromagnon xv

diet
82–3

human remains
85

Iron Age 70, 83–4

Matriarchy
72–3

Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) 70, 73

Neanderthal xv, 69

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) 70, 74, 76

Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age) 70–1, 1215

society 69–70, 71, 72–3 74, 84

Three Age Scheme 70

(see also
Stonehenge) Přemyslid Dynasty 428

Pre-romanticism 611–14

Presbyterianism
(see
Calvinism) Price Revolution 517–18, 1271

Primo de Rivera 981, 982

Princip, Gavrilo 877

Printing
445

Propaganda
500–1

Prostitution
190, 413

Protestantism
(see
Reformation) Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph 836, 837, 840

Proust, Marcel 865, 867, 892

Provence 829

Prussia 1276

army
611

Brandenburg-Prussia (from 1613) 494, 556–7

Calvinism in 494

Duchy of (from 1525) 556, 1276

early modern age 556–7, 647–9

French Revolutionary Wars 717, 721

gains in Saxony 762

German unification and 824, 826

intervention in United Provinces 690

Kingdom in (from 1700) 648

Napoleon and 727, 731, 733, 744, 761

Poland-Lithuania and 556

Polish Partitions and 649, 661, 663, 664, 719,
722

rise of 647–9

Royal (Polish) Prussia (from 1466) 556

Teutonic State 363–4, 556

Zollverein 805, 807

Prussian Crusade 363–4

Pskov 464

Psychiatry
454

Psychology 433, 794, 796, 861,
972–3

Ptolemaic Dynasty 133, 135

Public Health
776–7

Pugachev, Emelyan
587–8

Pułaski, Casimir 663, 664

Punic Wars 153, 155