Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937-1945 (70 page)

17. Sheng Cheng,
Taierzhuang jishi
[
Taierzhuang Memoir
] (Beijing, 2007), 36.

18. Katharine W. Hand, “Diary,” April 8, 1938. DZY, “Jiang taigong,” 273.

19. Sheng Cheng,
Taierzhuang jishi
, 48–49, 236.

20. FRUS, 1938, vol. III (April 19, 1938), 154.

21. DBPO, series 2, vol. 21 (April 29, 1938), 744–746.

22. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism
, 225; Williamsen, “The Military Dimension,” 140; MacKinnon,
Wuhan 1938
, 35.

23. DZY, “‘Jang taigong’ wei jianji” [“Meeting ‘Duke Jiang’”] (April 6, 1938), 274.

24. Diana Lary, “A Ravaged Place: The Devastation of the Xuzhou Region, 1938,” in Diana Lary and Stephen MacKinnon, eds.,
Scars of War: The Impact of Warfare on Modern China
(Vancouver, 2001), 102.

25. Ibid., 113–114.

26. “On Protracted War” (May 26 to June 3, 1938), MZD, vol. VI, 322.

9.
THE DEADLY RIVER

1. FRUS, 1938, vol. III (7 June 1938), 194.

2. Ibid. (July 19, 1938), 232–233, 236.

3. Ibid. (July 23, 1938), 234–235.

4. Stephen R. Mackinnon,
Wuhan 1938: War, Refugees, and the Making of Modern China
(Berkeley, CA, 2008), 57.

5. No. 2 Historical Archives of China, ed., “Deguo zongguwen Fakenhaosen guanyu Zhongguo kangRi zhanlue zhi liang fen jianyishu” [“Two Documents with Suggestions on Policy for China’s War of Resistance from German General Adviser Falkenhausen”] (August 20, 1935),
Minguo dang’an
2 (1991), 26.

6. Yet recent work has suggested that the French Army might have had a better chance of defeating the Germans in 1940 than was realized or admitted at the time. See Ernest R. May,
Strange Victory: Hitler’s Conquest of France
(New York, 2001).

7. Liang Changgen also argues that the blasting of the dikes was a turning point in terms of the Nationalist government’s attitude toward refugees and the need for the government to provide welfare provision for them. Liang Changgen, “Kangzhan qijian guomin zhengfu zai Huangfanqu de ziyuan zhenghe yu guojia diaodu” [“Resource Allocation and State Control of Yellow River Flood Zones by the National Government during the War of Resistance”],
Junshi lishi yanjiu
1 (2007), 57.

8. No. 2 Historical Archives of China, ed., “1938 nian Huanghe jueti shiliao yi zu” [“Material on the Breaching of the Yellow River Dikes, 1938: 1, Selections from Xiong Xianyi’s Diary, June 1938”],
Minguo dang’an
3 (1997), 9.

9. Xiong diary (June 9, 1938), 10; Diana Lary, “Drowned Earth: The Strategic Breaching of the Yellow River Dyke, 1938,”
War in History
8 (2001), 198–199.

10. “Japan’s Sorrow,”
Time
, June 27, 1938.

11. Ibid.

12. FRUS, 1938, vol. III (July 19, 1938), 230.

13. Lary, “Drowned Earth,” 205–206.

14. FRUS, 1938, vol. III (June 15, 1938), 197.

15. Diana Lary argues that the Japanese were not defeated in any of their overall objectives (“Drowned Earth,” 201). Ma Zhonglian suggests that the Japanese had decided to change their path toward Wuhan before the flood, and that there was little strategic value to the flooding (“Huayuankou jueti de junshi yiyi” [“The Military Significance of the Breach of the Dikes at Huayuankou”],
KangRi
zhanzheng yanjiu
4 (1999). Hans van de Ven gives more credit to the decision in military terms, in
War and Nationalism in China, 1925–1945
(London, 2003), 226.

16. “Yanbie deji guwen zhici” [“Speech of Farewell to the German Adviser”],
ZT
(July 2, 1938), 330.

17. FRUS, 1938, vol. III (June 22, 1938), 202.

18. Edna Tow, “The Great Bombing of Chongqing and the Anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945,” in Mark Peattie, Edward Drea and Hans van de Ven,
The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War
(Stanford, CA, 2011), 265.

19. Qin Shaoyi, ed.,
Xian zongtong Jianggong sixiang lun zongji
[
The Thought and Speeches of President Chiang Kai-shek
] (Taipei, 1984) [hereafter ZT]. “Fayang geming lishi de guangrong baowei geming genjudi de Wuhan” [“Wuhan, Developing Revolutionary History, Gloriously Defending the Revolutionary Base”], (July 31, 1938), 410–421.

20. MacKinnon,
Wuhan 1938
, 96.

21. “Renqing muqian kangzhan xingshi he suo fuze ren nuli zhunbei baowei Wuhan” [“Clearly Recognizing the Current Situation of the War of Resistance and Those Taking the Responsibility to Work Hard to Prepare to Defend Wuhan”], ZT (August 28, 1938), 461–466.

22. “On the New Stage” (October 12–14, 1938), MZD, vol. VI, 478–479.

23. Jay Taylor,
The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Making of Modern China
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 158

24. Taylor,
Generalissimo
, 159–160.

10. “
A SORT OF WARTIME NORMAL
”

1. See Lee McIsaac, “The City as Nation: Creating a Wartime Capital in Chongqing,” in Joseph W. Esherick, ed.,
Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900–1950
(Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2000).

2. Du Zhongyuan, “Diren neibu yanzhong zhuangkuang de xin baogao” [“A New Report on the Serious Situation of the Enemy in the Interior”] (24 April 1938), DZY, 276.

3. On Xinjiang, see James Millward,
Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2006); on Tibet, see Hsiao-ting Lin,
Tibet and Nationalist China’s Frontier: Intrigues and Ethnopolitics, 1928–49
(Vancouver, 2006).

4. Andres Rodriguez, “Building the Nation, Serving the Frontier: Mobilizing and Reconstructing China’s Borderlands during the War of Resistance (1937–1945),”
Modern Asian Studies
45:2 (March 2011).

5. Theodore White and Annalee Jacoby,
Thunder out of China
(New York, 1946), 13.

6. Southwestern Normal University Chongqing Bombing Research Centre et al., ed.,
Chongqing da hongzha
[
The Great Chongqing Bombings
] (Chongqing, 2002) [hereafter CQDH], 92–93.

7. Zhou Yong,
Chongqing tongshi
[
Comprehensive History of Chongqing
] (Chongqing, 2002), vol. 2, 876.

8. Sichuan Provincial Archives,
Kang-ri zhanzheng shiqi Sichuan sheng ge lei qingkuang tongji
[
Statistics on Various Situations in Wartime Sichuan Province
] (Chengdu, 2005), 29.

9. QDHF, 394.

10. Ibid., 408.

11. Chang Jui-te, “Bombs Don’t Discriminate? Class, Gender, and Ethnicity in the Air-Raid-Shelter Experience of the Wartime Chongqing Population,” in James Flath and Norman Smith,
Beyond Suffering: Recounting War in Modern China
(Vancouver, 2011); Edna Tow, “The Great Bombing of Chongqing and the Anti-Japanese War, 1937–1945,” in Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven,
The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese W
ar (Stanford, CA, 2011).

12. QDHF, 411–412.

13. Ibid., 416.

14. “War in China: Heavenly Dog,”
Time
(May 15, 1939).

15. QDHF, 410–411.

16. Tow, “The Great Bombing of Chongqing,” 265. Jay Taylor,
The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Making of Modern China
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 179.

17. MacKinnon,
Wuhan 1938
, 55–59.

18. Rana Mitter, “Classifying Citizens in Nationalist China during World War II,”
Modern Asian Studies
45:2 (March 2011), 258–259. Sichuan Provincial Archives,
Min
[Republican-era files] 38, folder 2/614 (June 1940).

19. Chongqing Municipal Archives [hereafter CQA], 0067–1–1150 (May 1939).

20. CQA, 0053–12–91 (May 1939).

21. Ibid.

22. CQA, 0053–12–91 (June 1939). Lu Liu, “A Whole Nation Walking,” 202–10.

23. Mitter, “Classifying Citizens,” 262.

24. Ibid., 265–267.

25. Hans J. van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China, 1925–1945
(London, 2003), 255–258.

26. Mitter, “Classifying Citizens,” 272–273. See also Helen Schneider, “Mobilising Women: The Women’s Advisory Council, Resistance, and Reconstruction during China’s War with Japan,”
European Journal of East Asian Studies
11:2 (2012).

27. Van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China
, 260–262.

28. William C. Kirby, “The Chinese War Economy,” in Hsiung and Levine,
China’s Bitter Victory
, 191; Felix Boecking, “Unmaking the Chinese Nationalist State: Administrative Reform among Fiscal Collapse, 1937–1945,”
Modern Asian Studies
45:2 (March 2011), 283.

29. Ibid., 190–191.

30. Ibid., 196.

31. Ibid., 192–193.

32. KH, “Diary,” May 2, 1938.

33. Timothy Brook,
Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China
(Cambridge, MA, 2005), especially chapters 2 and 3.

34. Yale Divinity Library, M. M. Rue papers: Y. L. Vane, “One Month among the Bandits.”

35. Timothy Brook, “The Great Way Government of Shanghai,” in Christian Henriot and Wen-hsin Yeh, eds.,
In the Shadow of the Rising Sun: Shanghai under Japanese Occupation
(Cambridge, 2004), 161.

36. Timothy Brook, “Collaborationist Nationalism in Wartime China,” in Timothy Brook and Andre Schmid,
Nation Work: Asian Elites and National Identities
(Ann Arbor, MI, 2000), 170ff.

37. Shanghai Municipal Archives [hereafter SMA]: Q113–2–12. Q165–1–64.

38. Yale Divinity Library, M. M. Rue papers: Mrs. C. M. Lee, “Impressions of Camp No. 100.”

39. SMA (U1–16–1039).

40. Ibid., 2.

41. See, for instance, “Who Ran the Treaty Ports? A Study of the Shanghai Municipal Council,” in Robert Bickers and Isabella Jackson (eds.),
Treaty Ports in Modern China: Law, Land, and Power
(London, 2013).

42. SMA (U1–16–1039), 101.

43. Ibid., 121.

44. KH, “Diary,” February 12, 1939.

45. Zhu Hongzhao,
Yan’an richang shenghuo zhong de lishi
[
The History of Everyday Life in Yan’an
] (Guilin, 2007), 11.

46. Zhu,
Yan’an
, 11–29.

47. Lyman P. Van Slyke, “The Chinese Communist Movement during the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945,” in Lloyd E. Eastman et al.,
The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949
(Cambridge, 1991), 183–187.

48. Van Slyke, “Chinese Communist Movement,” 181, 189.

49. “Interview with Nym Wales on Negotiations with the Guomindang and the War with Japan,” MZD, vol. VI, 16–17.

50. Mark Selden,
The Yenan Way in Revolutionary China
(Cambridge, MA, 1971).

51. For instance, “On Protracted War” (May 26, 1938), MZD, vol. VI, 319–389.

52. Van Slyke, “Chinese Communist Movement,” 203.

53. Ibid., 200.

54. Zhu,
Yan’an
, 12.

55. Ibid., 8.

56. Ibid., 34.

57. See Joshua H. Howard,
Workers at War: Labor in China’s Arsenals, 1937–1953
(Stanford, CA, 2004), on Chongqing workers, particularly chapters 3, 4, and 5.

58. Zhu,
Yan’an
, 6.

59. Ibid., (citing 1992 memoir).

60. Ibid., 238, 243, 245–250.

61. Ibid., 351.

62. Ibid., 319–321. Wang Guangrong, “Rijun feiji hongzha Yan’an jishi” [“A Record of the Bombing of Yan’an by Japanese Aircraft”],
Dangshi bolan
2 (2003), 46–47.

63. Zhu,
Yan’an
, 319–321. Wang Guangrong, “Rijun,” 46–47.

64. Van Slyke, “Chinese Communist Movement,” 200–02.

65. Selden,
Yenan Way
, 161–171; Lyman van Slyke,
Enemies and Friends: The United Front in Chinese Communist History
(Stanford, CA, 1967), 142–153.

66. Van Slyke, “Chinese Communist Movement,” 185–187.

67. On Pingxingguan, see Satoshi and Drea, “Japanese Operations,” in Peattie, Drea, and Van de Ven,
The Battle for China
, 164–167. On Communist base areas and resistance outside Yan’an see, for instance, Gregor Benton,
Mountain Fires: The Red Army’s Three-Year War in South China, 1934–1938
(Berkeley, CA, 1992), and on the New Fourth Army, Gregor Benton,
New Fourth Army: Communist Resistance Along the Yangtze and the Huai, 1938–1941
(Berkeley, CA, 1999); David Goodman,
Social and Political Change in Revolutionary China: The Taihang Base Area in the War of Resistance to Japan, 1937–1945
(Lanham, MD, 2000); Pauline Keating, David Goodman, and Feng Chongyi, eds.,
North China at War: The Social Ecology of Revolution
(New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1999); Pauline B. Keating,
Two Revolutions: Village Reconstruction and the Cooperative Movement in Northern Shaanxi, 1934–1945
(Stanford, CA, 1997); and Dagfinn Gatu,
Village China at War: The Impact of Resistance to Japan, 1937–1945
(Vancouver, 2008).