Forgotten Ally: China's World War II, 1937-1945 (67 page)

Notes

Abbreviations are given below for source references found in more than one chapter.

CKSD: Chiang Kai-shek diary

CQA: Chongqing Municipal Archive

CQDH: Southwestern Normal University Chongqing Bombing Research Center et al., ed.,
Chongqing da hongzha
[
The Great Chongqing Bombings
] (Chongqing, 2002)

CQHX: Xu Wancheng,
Chongqing Huaxu
[
Chongqing Gossip
] (Shanghai, 1946)

DBPO:
Documents on British Policy Overseas

DZY: Du Yi and Du Ying, eds.,
Huan wo heshan: Du Zhongyuan wenji
[
Return our Rivers and Mountains: The Collected Essays of Du Zhongyuan
] (Shanghai, 1998)

FRUS:
Foreign Relations of the United States

GZW: Gao Zongwu,
Gao Zongwu huiyilu
[
The Memoirs of Gao Zongwu
] (Beijing, 2009)

MSW: Mao Zedong,
Selected Works
, vol. III (Beijing, 1967)

MZD: Stuart R. Schram, ed.,
Mao’s Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912–1949
, 7 vols. (Armonk, NY, 1992–)

NARA: National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC

NCH:
North-China Herald

PVD: Peter Vladimirov,
The Vladimirov Diaries: Yenan, 1942–1945
(New York, 1975)

QDHF: Yang Lin et al.,
Qu da houfang: Zhongguo kangzhan neiqian shilu
[
Going to the Interior: True Stories of the Journey Inland during the War of Resistance
] (Shanghai, 2005)

SMA: Shanghai Municipal Archive

SP: Joseph W. Stilwell, ed. Theodore H. White,
The Stilwell Papers
(Beijing, 2003) [originally New York, 1948]

UNA: United Nations Archives, New York

ZFHR: Cai Dejin, ed.,
Zhou Fohai riji
[
Zhou Fohai’s Diary
], 2 vols. (Beijing, 1986)

ZHRB:
Zhonghua ribao
(newspaper)

ZT: Qin Shaoyi, ed.,
Xian zongtong Jianggong sixiang lun zongji
[
The Thought and Speeches of President Chiang Kai-shek
] (Taipei, 1984)

PROLOGUE: CITY ON FIRE

1. Southwestern Normal University Chongqing Bombing Research Center et al., ed.,
Chongqing da hongzha
[
The Great Chongqing Bombings
] (Chongqing, 2002) [hereafter CQDH], 106, 101–102, 111.

2. Ibid., 106–107.

3. Ibid., 111, 103.

4. Tetsuo Maeda, “Strategic Bombing of Chongqing by Imperial Japanese Army and Naval Forces,” in Yuki Tanaka and Marilyn B. Young, eds.,
Bombing Civilians: A Twentieth-Century History
(New York, 2009), 141.

5. CQDH, 109.

6. Chiang Kai-shek diary [hereafter CKSD] (Hoover Institution Archives) [Box 40, folder 8], May 3 and 4, 1939.

7. CQDH, 85.

8. The number of Chinese deaths in war between 1937 and 1945 continues to be unclear, although the figures are very large. Odd Arne Westad,
Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750
(London, 2012), 249, draws on careful scholarship to posit some 2 million Chinese combat deaths and 12 million civilian deaths caused directly by warfare, citing Rudolph J. Rummel,
China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900
(New York, 1991), and Guo Rugui,
Zhongguo kangRi zhanzheng zhengmian zhancheng zuozhan ji
(Nanjing, 2006). Meng Guoxiang’s extremely useful review article gives a variety of statistical bases for counting deaths and injuries, with figures ranging from some 8 million to 10 million deaths (Meng Guoxiang, “Zhongguo kangRi sunshi yanjiu de huigu yu sikao” [“Reviewing Research on Losses during China’s War of Resistance”],
KangRi zhanzheng yanjiu
2006:4). Diana Lary,
The Chinese People at War: Human Suffering and Social Transformation, 1937–1945
(Cambridge, 2010), 173, acknowledges the immense difficulty of compiling accurate statistics, but notes that the official postwar figures for the total population of China show a drop of some 18 million people since 1937.

9. Huang Meizhen,
Ri-wei dui Huazhong lunxianqu jingji de lueduo yu tongzhi
[
The Japanese and Puppet Plunder and Control of the Occupied Areas of Central China
] (Beijing, 2004), 36.

10. This number refers to the total of Japanese troops at their height. Edward J. Drea and Hans van de Ven, “Overview of Major Military Campaigns,” in Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven,
The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War
(Stanford, CA, 2011), 39.

11. Lyman P. Van Slyke, “The Chinese Communist Movement during the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945,” in Lloyd E. Eastman et al.,
The Nationalist Era in China, 1927–1949
(Cambridge, 1991), 277.

12. Rana Mitter, “China’s ‘Good War’: Voices, Locations, and Generations in the Interpretation of the War of Resistance to Japan,” in Sheila Jager and Rana Mitter,
Ruptured Histories: War, Memory and the Post–Cold War in Asia
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 179.

13. Recent histories of the global war have begun to incorporate the China theater more fully into their analyses, for example Niall Ferguson,
The War of the World: History’s Age of Hatred
(London, 2006), Max Hastings,
Inferno: The World at War, 1939–1945
(London, 2011), and Antony Beevor,
The Second World War
(London, 2012).

14. Theodore White and Annalee Jacoby,
Thunder out of China
(New York, 1946), 3.

15. For an analysis of the effect of the China wars on British public opinion, see Tom Buchanan,
East Wind: China and the British Left
(Oxford, 2012), especially chapter 2.

16. Important work suggesting that the origins of Communist social structures lie in the wartime Nationalist period include Mark W. Frazier,
The Making of the Chinese Industrial Workplace: State, Revolution, and Labor Management
(Cambridge, 2002), and Morris Bian,
The Making of the State Enterprise System in Modern China: The Dynamics of Institutional Change
(Cambridge, MA, 2005).

1.
AS CLOSE AS LIPS AND TEETH: CHINA’S FALL, JAPAN’S RISE

1. One analysis that emphasizes the closeness of the relationship between the two countries is Joshua Fogel,
Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time
(Cambridge, MA, 2009).

2. Ronald P. Toby,
State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan
(Princeton, NJ, 1984), is the classic work that complicates the idea that Japan was truly “isolated” during this period.

3. Jonathan D. Spence,
The Search for Modern China
(New York, 1990), 122.

4. Susan Naquin and Evelyn Rawski,
Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century
(New Haven, CT, 1989).

5. The most thoughtful recent reassessment of China’s changing foreign relations over the longer term is Odd Arne Westad,
Restless Empire: China and the World since 1750
(London, 2012).

6. For the effects of imperialism on the Qing polity, see Robert Bickers,
The Scramble for China: Foreign Devils in the Qing Empire, 1832–1914
(London, 2011).

7. Ssu-yu Teng and John King Fairbank,
China’s Response to the West: A Documentary Survey
(Cambridge, MA, 1954), 39–40.

8. Spence,
Search for Modern China
, 175. On the Taiping, see also Spence’s
God’s Chinese Son: The Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan
(New York, 1996) and Stephen R. Platt,
Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War
(New York, 2012).

9. Philip A. Kuhn,
Rebellion and its Enemies in Late Imperial China: Militarization and Social Structure, 1796–1864
(Cambridge, MA, 1970).

10. Paul Cohen,
History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Experience, Memory, and Myth
(New York, 1997), 85.

11. J. M. D. Pringle,
China Struggles for Unity
(London, 1939), 71.

12. Jay Taylor,
The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Making of Modern China
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 52.

13. Mikiso Hane,
Modern Japan: A Historical Survey
(Boulder, CO, 1992), 68.

14. Hane,
Modern Japan
, 86.

15. Ibid., 141–142.

16. Spence,
Search for Modern China
, 223.

17. Naoko Shimazu,
Japanese Society at War: Death, Memory and the Russo-Japanese War
(Cambridge, 2009).

18. Louise Young,
Japan’s Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism
(Berkeley, CA, 1998), 91.

19. Rana Mitter,
The Manchurian Myth: Nationalism, Resistance, and Collaboration in Modern China
(Berkeley, CA, 2000).

20. Teng and Fairbank,
China’s Response
, 180.

21. Rana Mitter,
A Bitter Revolution: China’s Struggle with the Modern World
(Oxford, 2004), 109.

22. On Chiang’s early life, see Taylor,
Generalissimo
, chapter 1.

23. On Sun, see Marie-Claire Bergère,
Sun Yat-sen
(Stanford, CA, 2000).

24. John Hunter Boyle,
China and Japan at War, 1937–1945: The Politics of Collaboration
(Stanford, CA, 1972), 16.

25. Ibid., 20.

26. Ibid., 16–18.

27. Ibid., 19.

28. On the May Fourth Movement, see Mitter,
Bitter Revolution
.

29. Li Dazhao, “The Victory of Bolshevism” (November 15, 1918), Teng and Fairbank,
China’s Response
, 249.

2.
A NEW REVOLUTION

1. Sidney H. Chang and Leonard H. G. Gordon,
All Under Heaven . 
.
 . : Sun Yat-sen and his Revolutionary Thought
(Hoover Institution, Stanford, CA, 1991), 86.

2. Ibid., 87.

3. Jay Taylor,
The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Making of Modern China
(Cambridge, MA, 2009), 44.

4. John Fitzgerald,
Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution
(Stanford, CA, 1998).

5. Ibid., 237.

6. Stuart R. Schram, ed.,
Mao’s Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912–1949
, 7 vols. (Armonk, NY, 1992–) [hereafter MZD], “The Question of Miss Zhao’s Personality” (18 November 1919), vol. 1, 423.

7. “A Study of Physical Education” (1 April 1917), MZD, vol. 1, 126.

8. Edgar Snow,
Red Star over China
(London, 1973), 92, 94.

9. “Peking Professors on the Shameen Massacre,” in Pei-kai Cheng and Michael Lestz with Jonathan D. Spence,
The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection
(New York, 1999), 258.

10. Taylor,
Generalissimo
, 50.

11. Ibid., 54.

12. “Analysis of all the Classes in Chinese Society” (1 December 1925), MZD, vol. 2, 261.

13. Hans J. van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China, 1925–45
(London, 2003), chapter 3.

14. Taylor,
Generalissimo
, 68.

15. On militarism in the Republican era, see Edward McCord,
The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism
(Berkeley, CA, 1993).

16. On the British role in China, see Robert Bickers,
Britain in China: Community, Culture, and Colonialism, 1900–49
(Manchester, 1999).

17. C. Martin Wilbur,
The Nationalist Revolution in China, 1923–1928
(Cambridge, 1984), 72.

18. Richard Madsen,
China and the American Dream: A Moral Inquiry
(Berkeley, CA, 1995), 30.

19. On Wilsonian thought in the colonial world, see Erez Manela,
The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism
(Oxford, 2007); on the racial-equality clause, Naoko Shimazu,
Japan, Race, and Equality: The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919
(London, 1998).

20. Eri Hotta,
Pan-Asianism and Japan’s War, 1931–1945
(Basingstoke, 2007), 71.

21. Louise Young,
Japan’s Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism
(Berkeley, CA, 1998), 89.