Gulag (87 page)

7. See Jakobson for an account of the prison systems of the 1920s.

8. GARF, 9414/1/77.

9. Juri Brodsky, pp. 30–31; Olitskaya, vol. I, pp. 237–40; Malsagov, pp. 117–31.

10. Olitskaya, pp. 237–40.

11. Hoover, Nicolaevsky Collection, Box 99; and Hoover, Fond 89, 73/34.

12.
Letters from Russian Prisons
, pp. 165–171.

13. Juri Brodsky, p. 194.

14. Shiryaev, pp. 30–37.

15. Volkov, p. 53.

16. Juri Brodsky, p. 65.

17. Likhachev,
Kniga bespokoistv
, pp. 98–100.

18. Juri Brodsky, p. 190.

19. Ibid., pp. 195–97.

20. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, p. 54.

21. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, pp. 40–44; also Chukhin, “Dva dokumenta.” Chukhin explains that these documents, reprinted in full, were a part of “criminal investigation number 885.” They are known to come from the Petrozavodsk FSB archive, where Chukhin worked.

22. Klinger, p. 210; also reprinted in
Sever
, vol. 9, September 1990, pp. 108–12. The mosquito torture is also mentioned in archival documents—see
Zvenya
, vol. I, p. 383—as well as in memoirs. See
Letters from Russian Prisons
, pp. 165–71; Volkov, p. 55.

23. Chukhin, “Dva dokumenta,” p. 359; Likhachev,
Kniga bespokoistv
, pp. 196–98.

24. Juri Brodsky, p. 129.

25. Tour guides on the Solovetsky Islands relate this story. It is also found in Solzhenitsyn,
The
Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, pp. 37–38.

26. Tsigankov, pp. 196–97.

27. Likhachev,
Kniga bespokoistv
, p. 212.

28. GARF newspaper and journal archives:
SLON
, vol. III, May 1924.

29. Shiryaev, pp. 115–32; Likhachev,
Kniga bespokoistv
, pp. 201–5. Also books and journals in SKM.

30.
SLON
, vol. III, May 1924 (GARF).

31.
Solovetskie Ostrova
, vol. 12, December 1925 (SKM).

32. Conversation with SKM director Tatyana Fokina, September 12, 1998. See also, for example,
Solovetskie Ostrova
, 1925, nos. 1–7;
Solovetskie Ostrova
, 1930, no. 1; or the bulletins of the
Solovetskoe Obshchestvo Kraevedeniya
, in the collection of the museum and the collection of AKB. See also Dryakhlitsin.

33.
Solovetskie Ostrova
, vol. 9, September 1925, pp. 7–8 (SKM).

34. Reznikova, pp. 46–47.

35.
Solovetskoi Lageram
, vol. 3, May 1924 (SKM).

36. Reznikova, pp. 7–36; Hoover, Melgunov Collection, Box 7, Folder 44.

37. Nikolai Antsiferov, “Tri glavy iz vospominanii,” in
Pamyat
, vol. 4, pp. 75–76.

38. Klinger, pp. 170–77.

39. Ibid., pp. 200–1; Malsagov, pp. 139–45; Rozanov, p. 55; Hoover, Melgunov Collection, Box 7.

40. Tsigankov, pp. 96–127; Hoover, Melgunov Collection, Box 7.

41.
Istoriya otechestvo v dokumentakh
,
Volume 2: 1921–1939
, pp. 51–52.

42. Jakobson, pp. 70–102.

43. Krasilnikov, “Rozhdenie Gulaga,” pp. 142–43. This is a collection of reprinted documents on the foundation of the Gulag, all of which come from the archives of the President of the Russian Federation, normally closed to researchers.

44. NARK, 689/1/(44/465).

45. NARK, 690/6/(2/9).

46. RGASPI, 17/3/65.

47. Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 18.

48. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, pp. 70–71.

49. GAOPDFRK, 1051/1/1.

50. Jakobson, p. 121, conversations in 1998 and 1999 with Nikita Petrov, Oleg Khlevnyuk, and Juri Brodsky.
Solovki
, the Italian edition of Brodsky’s book, does not mention Frenkel.

51. For example, Klementev; S. G. Eliseev, “Turemny dnevnk,” in Uroki, pp. 30–32.

52. Shiryaev, p. 138.

53. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, pp. 30–31.

54. Gorky,
Belomor
, pp. 226–28.

55. GAOPDFRK, 1033/1/35.

56. Duguet, p. 75.

57. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, p. 76.

58. Malsagov, pp. 61–73.

59. Shiryaev, pp. 137–38; Rozanov, pp. 174–91; Narinskii,
Vremya tyazhkikh potryasenii
, pp. 128–49.

60. Rozanov, pp. 174–91; Shiryaev, pp. 137–48.

61. Frenkel’s prisoner registration card, Hoover, St. Petersburg Memorial Collection.

62. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, pp. 30–31; Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, p. 78.

63. See “Posetiteli kabinetu I. V. Stalina,” Istoricheskii Arkhiv, no. 4, 1998, p. 180.

64. Hoover, St. Petersburg Memorial Collection.

65. NARK, 690/6/(1/3).

66. Baron, pp. 615–21.

67. NARK, 690/3/(17/148).

68. Ibid.

69. Kulikov, p. 99.

70. GAOPDFRK, 1033/1/15.

71. Nogtev, “USLON,” pp. 55–60; Nogtev, “Solovki,” 1926, pp. 4–5.

72. Juri Brodsky, p. 75.

73. Solovetsky’s deficit is cited in Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud”; also GAOPDFRK, 1051/1/1.

74. Baron, p. 624.

75. GAOPDFRK, 1033/1/35.

76. Juri Brodsky, p. 75.

77. Ibid., p. 114.

78. Ibid., p. 195.

79. NARK, 690/6/(1/3).

80. Chukhin, “Dva dokumenta.”

81. Juri Brodsky, p. 115.

82.
Letters from Russian Prisons
, pp. 183–88.

83. Hoover, Fond 89, 73/32.

84. Ibid., 73/34.

85.
Letters from Russian Prisons
, pp. 218–20.

86. Krasikov, p. 2.

87.
Letters from Russian Prisons
, p. 215.

88. Hoover, Fond 89, 73/34, 35, and 36.

89. Hoover, Nicolaevsky Collection, Box 782; Melgunov Collection, Box 8.

90. Hoover, Nicolaevsky Collection, Box 782, Folder 6.

91. Ibid., Folder 1.

92.
Letters from Russian Prisons
, p. 160.

3: 1929: The Great Turning Point

1. Stalin interviewed by Emil Ludwig, 1934, in Silvester, pp. 311–22.

2. Likhachev,
Kniga bespokoistv
, pp. 183–89.

3. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, p. 63; Figes, pp. 400–5 and 820–21.

4. Juri Brodsky, pp. 188–89.

5. Likhachev,
Kniga bespokoistv
, pp. 183–89.

6. Volkov, p. 168.

7. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II; Khesto, p. 245.

8. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, pp. 62–63; Khesto, pp. 243–54; Juri Brodsky pp. 185–88.

9. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, p. 36.

10. Gorky,
Sobranie sochinenii
, vol. XI, pp. 291–316. All Gorky quotes on Solovetsky come from this source.

11. Khesto, pp. 244–45.

12. Tolczyk, pp. 94–97. My interpretation of Gorky’s essay is based upon Tolczyk’s astute observations.

13. Tucker,
Stalin in Power
, pp. 125–27.

14. Payne, pp. 270–71.

15. Tucker,
Stalin in Power
, p. 96.

16.
Sbornik
, pp. 22–26.

17. See accounts in Tucker,
Stalin in Power
, and Conquest,
Stalin
, as well as Getty and Naumov.

18. See Conquest’s
Harvest of Sorrow
, still the most comprehensive English account of collectivization and the famine. Ivnitsky’s is an account that makes reliable use of archives. Like the exiles, the kulaks await their true chronicler.

19. Ivnitsky, p. 115; Zemskov, “Spetsposelentsy,” p. 4.

20. Getty and Naumov, pp. 110–12; Solomon, pp. 111–29.

21. Jakobson, p. 120.

22. Krasilnikov, “Rozhdenie Gulaga,” pp. 143–44.

23. Ibid., pp. 145–46.

24. Ibid., p. 145.

25. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

26. Krasilnikov, “Rozhdenie Gulaga”; Jakobson, pp. 1–9.

27. Jakobson, p. 120.

28. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud”; Krasilnikov,
Spetspereselentsy v zapadnoi Sibiri
,
vesna
1931 g.–nachalo 1933 g.
, p. 6.

29. GARF, 5446/1/54 and 9401/1a/1; Jakobson, pp. 124–25.

30. Harris.

31. Jakobson, p. 143.

32. See, for example, Kotkin, for a description of how plans for another Stalinist project—the Magnitogorsk steelworks, which had nothing to do with the Gulag—also went awry.

33. Evgeniya Ginzburg, for example, received a nonworking prison sentence as late as 1936. See E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind.

34. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, p. 25.

35. Tucker,
Stalin in Power
, p. 64.

36. Quoted in Bullock, p. 374.

37. Volkogonov,
Stalin
, pp. 127 and 148.

38. Moynahan, photographs on pp. 156 and 157, for example.

39. Tucker,
Stalin in Power
, p. 273.

40. Jakobson, p. 121.

41. Lih, Naumov, and Khlevnyuk, p. 211; also Krasilnikov, “Rozhdenie Gulaga,” pp. 152–54; Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud.”

42. Khlevnyuk, ibid., p. 74.

43. Jakobson, p. 121.

44. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud,” pp. 74–76; Jakobson, p. 121; Hoover, St. Petersburg Memorial Collection.

45. There are many examples in Stalin’s “
osobaya papka
” (personal file) in GARF, 9401/2. Delo 64 contains an extensive report on Dalstroi, for example.

46. Nordlander, “Origins of a Gulag Capital,” pp. 798–800.

47.
Genrikh Yagoda
, p. 434.

48. Protocols of the Politburo, RGASPI, 17/3.

49. Volkogonov,
Stalin
, pp. 252, 308–9, and 519.

50. GARF, 9401/2/199 (Stalin’s personal file).

51. RGASPI, 17/3/746; Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

52. Nordlander, ibid.

53. Kaneva, p. 331.

54. Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 34.

55.
Genrikh Yagoda
, pp. 375–76.

56. Terry Martin suggested this to me in an email exchange in June 2002.

4: The White Sea Canal

1. Cited in Baron, p. 638.

2. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, pp. 218–19.

3. Bateson and Pim.

4. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, p. 219.

5. Ibid., p. 221.

6. Ibid., p. 220.

7. Ibid., p. 220; Jakobson, p. 126.

8. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, p. 220.

9. GARF, 5446/1/54 and 9401/1a/1.

10. GARF, 9414/1/2920.

11. Jakobson, p. 127.

12. Kitchin, pp. 267–70.

13. Jakobson, pp. 127–28.

14. GAOPDFRK, 26/1/41.

15. Gorky,
Belomor
, (translation of
Kanal imeni Stalina)
, pp. 17–19.

16. Ibid., p. 40.

17. Lih, Naumov, and Khlevnyuk pp. 225 and 212.

18. Makurov, p. 76. This is a collection of documents selected from the Karelian archives.

19. Okhotin and Roginskii, p. 163.

20. Baron, pp. 640–41; also Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeesi.

21. Makurov, p. 86.

22. Gorky,
Belomor
, p. 173.

23. Makurov, pp. 96 and 19–20.

24. Baron, p. 643.

25. Makurov, pp. 37 and 197.

26. Ibid., pp. 43–44.

27. Ibid., p. 197.

28. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, p. 121.

29. Makurov, pp. 19–20.

30. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, p. 12.

31. Makurov, pp. 72–73.

32. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, pp. 127–31.

33. Tolczyk, p. 152.

34. Baranov, pp. 165–68.

35. Gorky,
Belomor
, pp. 46 and 47.

36. Ibid., pp. 158 and 165.

37. Pogodin, pp. 109–83; Geller, pp. 151–57.

38. Gliksman, p. 165.

39. Ibid., pp. 173–78.

40. GARF, 9414/4/1;
Perekovka
, January 18, 1933.

41. GARF, 9414/4/1;
Perekovka
, December 20, 1932–June 30, 1934.

42. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. I, p. 102.

5: The Camps Expand

1.
Kuznitsa
, March–September 1936; (GARF journal collection).

2. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud,” pp. 75–76.

3. Nicolas Werth, “A State against Its People: Violence, Repression and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Courtois, p. 154. An account of the incident, as by an anonymous prisoner who met some survivors in the Tomsk prison, also appears in
Pamyat
, vol. I, pp. 342–43; also Krasilnikov,
Spetspereselentsy v zapadnoi Sibiri
,
1933–1938
, pp. 76–119.

4. Elantseva. This article is based on archives found in the Tomsk Central State Archive of the Russian Federation, Far East.

5. Ibid.; Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 153.

6. N. A. Morozov,
GULAG v Komi krae
, p. 104.

7. Kaneva. My account is based on Kaneva’s, which is in turn based on documents in the archives of the Komi Republic, as well as memoirs in the collection of the Memorial Society.

8. Ibid., pp. 331 and 334–35.

9. GARF, 9414/1/8.

10. Mitin, pp. 22–26.

11. Exhibition at the Vorkuta Kraevedchesky Muzei; also “Vorkutinstroi NKVD” (MVD document of January 1941), in the collection of Syktyvkar Memorial, Komi Republic; Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 192.

12. Kaneva, p. 339.

13. Nadezhda Ignatova, “Spetspereselentsy v respublike Komi v 1930–1940 gg,” in
Korni
travy
, pp. 23–25.

14. Ibid., pp. 25 and 29.

15. N. A. Morozov,
GULAG v Komi krae
, pp. 13–14.

16. Kaneva, pp. 337–38.

17. Nadezhda Ignatova, “Spetspereselentsy v respublike Komi v 1930–1940 gg,” in
Korni
travy
, pp. 23–25.

18. Kaneva, p. 342.

19. Ibid.

20. Stephan,
The Russian Far East
, p. 225.

21. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag”; I am indebted to David Nordlander’s work on Kolyma—so far the only comprehensive, archive-based Western study of Kolyma—for the account of Kolyma’s history in this section and elsewhere.

22. Ibid.

23. Viktor Shmirov of the Perm Memorial Society, conversation with the author, March 31, 1998.