Gulag (91 page)
29. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, p. 233.
30. Herling, p. 135.
31. Frid, p. 187.
32. Ibid., pp. 187–88.
33. Zhigulin, pp. 128–33.
34. Vogelfanger.
35. Sitko and Pechora, interviews with the author.
36. Kaufman, p. 223.
37. Sitko, interview with the author.
38. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, pp. 248–49.
39. Ibid., p. 249.
40. NKVD operation order of August 15, 1937, reprinted in
Sbornik
, pp. 86–93.
41. GARF, 9401/1a/66.
42. Kaufman, pp. 188–89.
43. Natalya Zaporozhets, in Vilensky,
Till My Tale Is Told
, pp. 532–39.
44. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, p. 428.
45. Ibid., pp. 41–42.
46. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.
47. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, p. 117.
48. For example, the amnesty for women with children in 1945 specifically excluded political prisoners, as did a similar one in 1948. GARF 8131/37/4554; 9401/1a/191; and 9401/1/743.
49. Khachatryan, interview with the author.
50. Lahti, unpublished memoir. I am grateful to Reuben Rajala for this manuscript.
51. Joffe, p. 124.
52. Frid, p. 184; GARF, 9414/1/2741.
53. Andreevna, interview with the author.
54. Yakovenko, p. 196.
55. Hava Volovich, “My Past,” in Vilensky,
Dodnes Tiagoteet
, pp. 260–64.
56. GARF, 9414/6/44 and 45.
57. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 3.
58. GARF, 9401/2/234.
59. GARF, 8313/37/4554 and 1261.
60. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, p. 150.
61. Joffe, pp. 127–35.
62. GARF, 8313/37/4554.
63. Anonymous, interview with the author.
64. GARF, 8313/37/4554.
65. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, pp. 3–11.
66. Although the anonymous nursery administrator I spoke to denied that this happened, many, many memoirists speak of mothers being separated from their children. Susanna Pechora says that in the special camps, it was standard practice.
67. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, pp. 241–42.
68. Armonas, pp. 156–61.
69. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, p. 320.
70. Bazarov, p. 362.
71. Ibid., pp. 370–76.
72. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, p. 144.
73. GARF, 9401/1a/20.
74. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, p. 248.
75. Ibid., p. 247.
76. GARF, 9401/1a/20.
77. Yakir, p. 31.
78. Anonymous,
Ekho iz Nebutiya
, pp. 289–92.
79. Yurganova, interview with the author.
80. Hochschild, p. 87.
81. Pechora, interview with the author.
82. Lahti, unpublished memoir.
83. GARF, 9414/1/27.
84. Serge, p. 28.
85. Bazarov, p. 383.
86. GARF, 9414/1/42 and 9401/1a/7; Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, pp. 447–51.
87. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, p. 11.
88. GARF, 9414/1/42; Bazarov, pp. 385–93.
89. Razgon, p. 162.
90. GARF, 9412/1/58.
91. GARF, 9401/1a/62 and 7.
92. GARF, 8131/37/4553.
93. GARF, 9401/1a/57.
94. Yakir, pp. 32–62.
95. Kmiecik, pp. 70–74.
96. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, pp. 283–93.
97. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, p. 274.
98. GARF, 8131/37/2063.
99. GARF, 9414/1/27.
100. Kmiecik, pp. 93–94.
101. GARF, 9401/1a/81.
102. GARF, 8131/37/2063.
103. Kmiecik, pp. 114–17.
104. GARF archives, in the collection of the author.
105. GARF, 9414/4/1; from the newspaper
Perekovka
, June 1, 1934.
106. GARF, 9412/1C/47.
107. GARF, 9401/1a/107.
108. GARF, 9401/1a/7/84.
109. GARF, 8131/37/4547.
110. Razgon, pp. 162–63.
111. Ibid., p. 162.
112. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, p. 457.
113. Wigmans, p. 90.
114. Klein,
Ulybki nevoli
, pp. 20–25.
115. See Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, for excerpts from these memoirs.
16: The Dying
1. Gagen-Torn, p. 244.
2. Rossi,
The Gulag Handbook
, pp. 107–8 and 476.
3. GARF, 9414/3/40.
4. Herling, p. 51.
5. Sgovio, p. 177.
6. Tamara Petkevich, “Just One Fate,” in Vilensky,
Till My Tale Is Told
, pp. 223–24.
7. Shalamov, from samizdat publication, translated with the help of Galya Vinogradova. While the author has good reason to believe this is the work of Varlam Shalamov, some work may have incorrectly circulated in the Soviet Union under his name.
8. Sgovio, pp. 162 and 160–61.
9. Bardach, p. 236.
10. Efrussi, “Dokhodyagi,” in Vilensky,
Osventsim Bez Pechei
, p. 59.
11. Herling, p. 136.
12. Gilboa, pp. 53–54.
13. Bardach, p. 235.
14. GARF, 8131/37/797.
15. N. Mandelstam, p. 263.
16. Gnedin, pp. 80–86.
17. Merridale, p. 261.
18. Todorov,
Facing the Extreme
, p. 37.
19. Rotfort, pp. 40–41.
20. Eizenberger, pp. 38–39.
21. Mindlin, p. 60.
22. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 91.
23. Todorov,
Facing the Extreme
, p. 63.
24. GARF, 8131/37/809.
25. Buca, p. 150; Berdinskikh, p. 28.
26. Vogelfanger, p. 80.
27. GARF, 8131/37/809.
28. GARF, 8131/37/542.
29. Merridale, p. 265.
30. Buca, p. 152.
31. Shalamov, p. 281.
32. GARF, 9414/1/2809.
33. GARF, 9414/1/2771.
34. Herling, p. 149.
17: Strategies of Survival
1. Shalamov,
Neskolko moikh zhiznei
, p. 391.
2. Vogelfanger, p. 206.
3. Zorin, interview with the author.
4. Quoted in Todorov,
Facing the Extreme
, p. 32.
5. Buca, p. 79.
6. Olitskaya, pp. 233–34.
7. Usakova, interview with the author.
8. Herling, p. 68.
9. Levi, p. 97.
10. Bettelheim, pp. 169–71.
11. Colonna-Czosnowski, p. 118.
12. Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales
, pp. 405–14.
13. This is Todorov’s observation. Todorov,
Facing the Extreme
, p. 35.
14. Quite a lot has been written about
tufta
in the USSR. See Fitzpatrick,
Everyday Stalinism
; Berliner; Ledeneva; and Andreev-Khomiakov.
15. Frid, pp. 134–36.
16. Dyakov, p. 54.
17. Anonymous, interview with the author.
18. Cohen, pp. 140–47.
19. Yasnyi, p. 51.
20. Ulyanovskaya, pp. 360–61.
21. Borin, pp. 234–36.
22. Shister, interview with the author.
23. Petrov, p. 179.
24. Herling, p. 37.
25. Razgon, p. 155.
26. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, p. 218.
27. Usova, unpublished memoir.
28. Karta, Kazimierz Zamorski Collection, Teczka 1, File 6107 (Halina Storozuk).
29. Frid, pp. 134–36.
30. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, p. 416.
31. Sgovio, pp. 167–75.
32. S. Fomchenko, “Pervye desyat,” in Uroki, p. 225.
33. P. Galitsky, “Etogo Zobyt Nelzya” in Uroki, pp. 83–88.
34. Samsonov,
Zhizn prodolzhaetsya
, pp. 70–71.
35. Maksimovich, pp. 91–100.
36. Zorin, interview with the author.
37. Finkelstein, interview with the author.
38. Adamova-Sliozberg, pp. 50–51.
39. Rossi,
The Gulag Handbook
, pp. 247 and 255.
40. Maksimovich, pp. 91–100.
41. Klein,
Ulybki nevoli
, pp. 60–61 and 73.
42. GARF, 8131/37/1261, 797, and 1265.
43. GARF, 9414/1/28.
44. Filshtinsky, pp. 15–22.
45. Sofsky, p. 130.
46. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, pp. 253, 254, and 252.
47. Bien, unpublished memoir.
48. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, pp. 252–53.
49. Petrov, pp. 48–96.
50. GARF, 9489/2/19.
51. Razgon, p. 154.
52. GARF, 9401/12/316.
53. GARF, 8131/37/356.
54. Razgon, pp. 222–31; Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, p. 255.
55. Filshtinsky, pp. 120–21.
56. Yasnyi, pp. 50–51.
57. Berdinskikh, p. 113.
58. Ibid., pp. 113–14.
59. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. II, pp. 360–66.
60. Ibid., pp. 260–61.
61. Mukhina-Petrinskaya.
62. Panin, p. 176.
63. Razgon, p. 153.
64. Ibid., p. 156.
65. Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales
, p. 405.
66. Kopelev, pp. 142–44.
67. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 108.
68. Sgovio, p. 206.
69. Eisenberger, pp. 67–68.
70. Okunevskaya, p. 280.
71. Aleksandrovich, p. 11.
72. Rozsas, p. 282. I am grateful to Janos Rozsas for sending me this material.
73. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. I., p. 279; Reshetovskaya, pp. 121–22.
74. GARF, 9414/1/2736.
75. GARF, 9489/2/25.
76. Gliksman, p. 300.
77. Herling, pp. 101–2.
78. Bien, unpublished memoir.
79. GARF, 8131/37/356, 809, and 356.
80. Papkov, p. 57.
81. GARF, 9489/2/25.
82. Aleksandrovich, pp. 11 and 22.
83. GARF, 8131/37/4547.
84. GARF, 9489/2/25.
85. Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales
, pp. 408–10.
86. Colonna-Czosnowski, pp. 102–7.
87. Dolgun, p. 240.
88. Finkelstein, interview with the author.
89. Okunevskaya, p. 336.
90. Aleksandrovich, p. 12.
91. GARF, 8131/37/4547 and 542.
92. Vogelfanger, pp. 71–72.
93. Gliksman, pp. 211–12.
94. Buca, p. 150.
95. GARF, 8131/37/356.
96. Lipper, p. 251.
98. GARF, 8131/37/809.
98. Trus, interview with the author.
99. GARF, 9414/1/2739.
100. For example, GARF, 9489/2/18.
101. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 8.
102. Dolgun, p. 239.
103. Bardach, p. 259.
104. Vogelfanger, pp. 68 and 162.
105. GARF, 9414/1/2771.
106. GARF, 9489/2/5/474.
107. Zhigulin, p. 153.
108. Kudryavtsev, p. 288.
109. Lipper, pp. 257–58; Herling, p. 102; Aleksandrovich, pp. 24–25; A. Marchenko,
My
Testimony
, pp. 140–42.
110. Frid, p. 137.
111. Dolgun, p. 273; Lipper, pp. 257–58.
112. Aleksandrovich, p. 24.
113. Herling, pp. 80–82.
114. Zhigulin, p. 151.
115. Bardach, pp. 332–33.
116. Lipper, p. 258.
117. Bystroletov, p. 407.
118. Dolgun, pp. 176–79.
119. Todorov,
Facing the Extreme
, pp. 47–120.
120. Federolf, p. 224.
121. Z. Marchenko, unpublished memoir. I am grateful to Zoya Marchenko for giving me her work.
122. Kekushev, pp. 84–85.
123. Panin, p. 79.
124. Bardach, pp. 207–8.
125. Adamova-Sliozberg, pp. 8–9.
126. S. I. Kuznetsov, p. 613.
127. Chetverikov, p. 35.
128. Bardach, pp. 122–39.
129. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
.
130. Gagen-Torn, p. 161.
131. Shalamov, from samizdat publication, translated with the help of Galya Vinogradova. While the author has good reason to believe this is the work of Varlam Shalamov, some work may have incorrectly circulated in the Soviet Union under his name.
132. Scammell,
Solzhenitsyn
, p. 284.
133. Pashnin, pp. 103–17.
134. Cherkhanov, unpublished memoir; Ulyanovskaya, p. 300.
135. Zorin, interview with the author.
136. Kopelev, p. 154.
137. Zarod, p. 118.
138. K. Golitsyn, pp. 267–68.
139. Dolgun, pp. 206–7.
140. Andreevna, interview with the author.
141. Tvardovsky, pp. 272–75.
142. Klein,
Ulybki nevoli
, pp. 70–71.
143. Feldgun, unpublished memoir.
144. GARF, 9489/2/20.
145. Sgovio, pp. 168–69.
146. Feldgun, unpublished memoir.
147. E. Sudakova, “Otryvok iz vospominanii,” in
Uroki
, pp. 132–37.
148. Panin, p. 79.
149. Chirkov, pp. 96–97.
150. Herling, p. 156.
151. Okunevskaya, p. 352.
152. Starostin, pp. 88–92.
153. Joffe, p. 139.
154. Głowacki, pp. 317–18.
155. Finkelstein, interview with the author.
156. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, p. 292.
157. Wat, p. 142.
158. Dolgun, pp. 141–47.
159. Bardach, p. 190.
160. Colonna-Czosnowski, pp. 120–21.
161. Gagen-Torn, “Rukopis,” in
Pamyat Kolymy
, pp. 23–25.
162. Smirnov, conversation with the author, February 2001.
163. Herling, pp. 139–40.
164. Arginskaya, interview with the author.
165. Ulyanovskaya, pp. 356–65.
18: Rebellion and Escape
1. Rawicz, p. 96.
2. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. III, p. 97.
3. Zhigulin, p. 192.
4. Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales
, pp. 343–79.
5. MacQueen.
6. Herling, pp. 125–29.
7. Petrov, pp. 104–7.
8. Rossi,
The Gulag Handbook
, p. 204; Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. III, p. 161.
9. Solzhenitsyn, ibid., pp. 197–99.
