Gulag (88 page)

24. Shmirov, “Lager kak model Realnosti.”

25. Stephan,
The Russian Far East
, p. 225.

26. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

27. Ibid.

28. Stephan,
The Russian Far East
, p. 226.

29. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

30. Stephan,
The Russian Far East
, p. 227.

31. Kozlov, “Sevvostlag NKVD SSSR.”

32. Stephan,
The Russian Far East
, p. 226.

33. Conquest,
Kolyma
, p. 42.

34. Sgovio, p. 153.

35. Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales
, p. 369.

36. Kozlov, “Sevvostlag NKVD SSSR,” p. 81; Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

37. Ioffe, pp. 66–71.

38. Kozlov, “Sevvostlag NKVD SSSR,” p. 82.

39. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 201.

40. Ibid.

41. GARF, 9414/1/OURZ, in the collection of A. Kokurin.

42. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud,” p. 78.

43. Ibid.; Okhotin and Roginsky, pp. 376, 399, and 285.

44. Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 38.

6: The Great Terror and Its Aftermath

1. Akhmatova, p. 103.

2. Bacon, pp. 30 and 122. Bacon compiled his figures from various sources, adding together all of the different categories of forced laborers. See Appendix for further discussion of statistics.

3. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. I, p. 24.

4. Unless otherwise footnoted, this account of the Great Terror comes from Conquest,
The
Great Terror
; Khlevnyuk,
1937
; Getty and Naumov; and Martin, “The Great Terror.”

5. Getty and Naumov, p. 472.

6.
Trud
, no. 88, June 4, 1992; reprinted in Getty and Naumov, pp. 472–77; many similar documents are found in Sabbo, pp. 297–304.

7. Sabbo, pp. 297–304.

8. Kokurin and Petrov,
Lubyanka
, p. 15.

9. Veronica Znamenskaya, “To This Day,” in Vilensky,
Till
,
My Tale Is Told
, pp. 141–49.

10. Yurasova.

11. GARF, personnel files. Also Kokurin and Petrov,
Gulag
, pp. 797–857.

12. GARF, 8131/37/99.

13. This account of Berzin’s arrest comes from Nordlander’s “Capital of the Gulag” and “Magadan and the Evolution of the Dalstroi Bosses.”

14. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, pp. 182–213

15. Yelena Sidorkina, “Years Under Guard,” in Vilensky,
Till
,
My Tale Is Told
, p. 194.

16. GARF, 9401/12/94.

17. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, p. 298.

18. Geller, pp. 151–57.

19. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 96.

20. Kokurin and Petrov,
Gulag
, pp. 863–69.

21. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, pp. 95–96; Makurov, pp. 183–84.

22. Rossi,
The Gulag Handbook
, p. 180.

23. Ibid., p. 60; Volkogonov,
Stalin
, p. 279.

24. Rossi,
The Gulag Handbook
, pp. 36 and 497;
Sbornik
, pp. 86–93.

25. Larina, p. 182.

26. Levinson, pp. 39–42.

27. Gorky,
Belomor
, p. 341.

28. Weiner, “Nature, Nurture and Memory in a Socialist Utopia.”

29. Herling, p. 10.

30. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 95.

31. Rossi,
The Gulag Handbook
, p. 449.

32. Leipman, p. 38.

33. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

34. Makurov, p. 160.

35. Chukhin,
Kanaloarmeetsi
, p. 120.

36. Shmirov.

37. Quoted in Shmirov, ibid.

38.
Trud
, no. 88, June 4, 1992, reprinted in Getty and Naumov, pp. 479–80; N. A. Morozov, conversation with the author, July 2001.

39. Papkov.

40. GARF, 9414/1/OURZ, in the collection of A. Kokurin.

41. This was Prikaz 00447, analyzed by N. Petrov and A. Roginsky, “Polskaya operatsiya NKVD, 1937–1938 gg,” in Guryanov,
Repressii protiv polyakov
, pp. 22–43.

42.
Memorialne kladbishche Sandormokh
, pp. 3 and 160–67 (a collection of documents about the executions of Sandormokh). Another source cites the date of the NKVD order on the repression of prisoners as August 16, 1937 (Binner, Junge, and Martin).

43. Florensky, pp. 777–80, from Chirkov.

44.
Memorialne kladbishche Sandormokh
, pp. 167–69.

45. Hoover, Nicolaevsky Collection, Box 233, Folder 23; also N. A. Morozov,
GULAG v Komi
krae
, p. 28.

46. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, pp. 286–87.

47. FSB archive, Petrozavodsk, Fond 42, pp. 55–140: Akt Zasedaniya Troiki NKVD KSSR no. 13, September 20, 1937, in the collection of Yuri Dmitriev, Petrozavodsk Memorial.

48. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, p. 438.

49. Getty and Naumov, pp. 532–37.

50. Ibid., p. 562.

51. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, p. 256.

52. N. A. Morozov,
GULAG v Komi krae
, pp. 28–29.

53. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag,” pp. 253–57.

54. Makurov, p. 163.

55. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud,” p. 79.

56. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, pp. 105–7.

57. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

58. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud,” p. 73.

59. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”

60. GARF, 9401/1/4240.

61. Solzhenitsyn,
The First Circle
, pp. 25 and 29.

62. Golovanov; Raizman, pp. 21–23.

63. Kokurin, “Osoboe tekhnicheskoe byuro NKVD SSSR.”

64. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud,” p. 79.

65. GARF, 7523/67/1.

66. GARF, 9414/1/24 and 25.

67. GARF, 7523/67/1.

68. GARF, 8131/37/356; 7523/67/2; and 9401/1a/71.

69. Knight,
Beria
, pp. 105–6.

70. Khlevnyuk, “Prinuditelniy trud,” p. 80.

71. Zemskov, “Zaklyuchennie,” p. 63; Bacon, p. 30.

72. Zemskov, “Arkhipelag Gulag,” pp. 6–7; Bacon, p. 30.

73. Okhotin and Roginskii, p. 308.

74. Ibid., pp. 338–39.

75. Ibid., pp. 200–1, 191–92, and 303.

76. Vasileeva, interview with the author.

77. The phrase “camp-industrial complex” is used by M. B. Smirnov, S. P. Sigachev, and D. V. Shkapov, the co-authors of the historical Introduction to Okhotin and Roginsky.

Part Two: Life and Work in the Camps

7: Arrest

1. N. Mandelstam, pp. 10–11.

2. Robinson, p. 13.

3. Agnew and McDermott, pp. 145 and 143–49.

4. Gelb.

5. Martin,
The Affirmative Action Empire
, pp. 328–43.

6. Lipper, p. 35; Stephan,
The Russian Far East
, p. 229.

7. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, pp. 271–72.

8. Stajner, p. 33.

9. Martin, “Stalinist Forced Relocation Policies.”

10. Several versions of this poem exist in Russian. This one is based loosely on one found in E. Yevtushenko, ed.,
Strofi Veka
.

11. Okunevskaya, p. 227.

12. Starostin; GARF, 7523/60/4105.

13. Razgon, p. 93.

14. GARF, 9401/12/253.

15. Weissberg, pp. 16–87.

16. Serebryakova, pp. 34–50.

17. Lipper, p. 3.

18. Starostin, pp. 62–69.

19. Wat, pp. 308–12.

20. Dolgun, pp. 8–9.

21. Okunevskaya, pp. 227–28.

22. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. I, p. 8.

23. Gagen-Torn, p. 58.

24. Hoover, Fond 89, 18/12, Reel 1.994.

25. V. Petrov, p. 17.

26. N. Mandelstam, pp. 9 and 8.

27. Naimark,
The Russians in Germany
, pp. 69–140.

28. RGVA, 40/71/323.

29. Głowacki, p. 329.

30. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, p. 45.

31. Yelena Sidorkina, “Years Under Guard,” in Vilensky,
Till My Tale Is Told
, pp. 194–95.

32. Razgon, p. 56.

33. Zhenov, p. 44.

34. Shikheeva-Gaister, pp. 99–104.

35. GARF, 9410/12/3.

36. Joffe, pp. 90–91.

37. Solzhenitsyn,
The First Circle
, pp. 533–34.

38. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.

39. Milyutina, pp. 150–51.

40. Solzhenitsyn,
The First Circle
, p. 547.

41. Gnedin, pp. 68–69.

42. Dolgun, p. 11.

43. Vogelfanger, pp. 4–5.

44. Bershadskaya, pp. 37–39.

45. Adamova-Sliozberg, p. 16.

46. Walter Warwick, unpublished memoir. My thanks to Reuben Rajala for this text.

47. Kuusinen, p. 135.

48.
Miranda
v.
Arizona
, 384 US 436 (1966).

49. N. Werth, “A State against Its People: Violence, Repression and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Courtois, pp. 193–94.

50. Gorbatov, p. 118.

51. Hoover, Sgovio Collection, Box 3.

52. Sgovio, p. 69.

53. Hoover, Sgovio Collection, Box 3.

54. Finkelstein, interview with the author.

55. Durasova, p. 77.

56. N. Petrov and A. Roginsky, “Polskaya operatsiya NKVD, 1937–1938 gg,” in Guryanov,
Repressii protiv polyakov
, pp. 37–38; N. Petrov, “Polska Operacja NKWD.”

57. Petrov and Roginsky, ibid., p. 24–25.

58. Iwanow, p. 370.

59. N. Petrov, “Polska Operacja NKWD,” pp. 27–29.

60. Ibid., pp. 24–43 and 32.

61. Hoover, Fond 89, 18/12, Reel 1.994; Getty and Naumov, pp. 530–37.

62. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, pp. 130 and 131.

63. V. Tchernavin, pp. 156–63.

64. Narinsky,
Vospominaniya glavnogo bukhgaltera GULAG
, p. 60.

65. Khrushchev’s secret speech, reprinted in Khrushchev, p. 585.

66. Jansen and Petrov.

67. Gnedin, pp. 24–31.

68. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, p. 121.

69. Shentalinsky, p. 26.

70. Hava Volovich, “My Past,” in Vilensky,
Till My Tale Is Told
, p. 251.

71. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, p. 94.

72. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.

73. V. Tchernavin, p. 162.

74. Dolgun, pp. 37–38, 193, and 202.

75. Gorbatov, pp. 109–10.

76. Razgon, p. 73.

77. Pechora, interview with the author.

8: Prison

1. GARF, 9401/1a/14.

2. GARF, 9401/1a/128.

3. Sobolev, p. 66.

4. Garaseva, pp. 96–101; for a history of the Lubyanka building, see Sobolev, pp. 11–79.

5. Panin, p. 24.

6. Sergeev, pp. 232–38.

7. Gnedin, pp. 24–31.

8. Butyrsky and Karyshev, pp. 20–21.

9. Garaseva, pp. 96–101.

10. Chetverikov, p. 35.

11. Dolgun, p. 62. The Nazi leader Albert Speer made a very similar “walk,” over many years, in his cell in the Allied prison at Spandau.

12. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, pp. 193 and 267.

13. Finkelstein, interview with the author.

14. GARF, 9413/1/17; 9412/1/25, and 9413/1/6.

15. GARF, 8131/37/360.

16. GARF, 8131/37/796, 1250, and 1251.

17. Zabolotsky, pp. 310–31.

18. Buber-Neumann, p. 36.

19. GARF, 9401/1a/14.

20. Buber-Neumann, p. 33.

21. Trubetskoi, p. 261.

22. Nadezhda Grankina, “Notes by Your Contemporary,” in Vilensky,
Till My Tale Is Told
, p. 119.

23. Yasnyi, pp. 1–50.

24. Dolgun, p. 15.

25. See, for example, Gorbatov, p. 111; or Zarod, p. 45. Yakov Éfrussi entitled his prison memoirs
Kto na “E?” (Who Starts with “E?”
).

26. Vesyolaya, pp. 30–33.

27. Bershadskaya, pp. 37–39.

28. Vesyolaya, pp. 30–33.

29. Buber-Neumann, pp. 36 and 37.

30. Adamova-Sliozberg, pp. 17 and 8.

31. Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales
, pp. 200–16.

32. Shikheeva-Gaister, pp. 99–104.

33. Bystroletov, p. 115.

34. Pechora, interview with the author.

35. GARF, 9489/2/31.

36. Weissberg, p. 278.

37. Lipper, pp. 7–10.

38. Zarod, p. 39.

39. Finkelstein, interview with the author.

40. Razgon, p. 223.

41. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 116, Folder 2.

42. Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales
, p. 215.

43. Olitskaya, pp. 180–89.

44. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, pp. 71–72.

45. Dolgun, p. 95.

46. Vesyolaya, p. 312.

47. Zhigulin, p. 53.

48. Shalamov,
Kolyma Tales
, pp. 200–16.

49. Ibid., pp. 213 and 216.

9: Transport, Arrival, Selection

1. Sutherland, p. 136.

2. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, p. 205.

3. Sgovio, pp. 129–35.

4. Khachatryan, interview with the author.

5. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, p. 100.

6. GARF, 8466/1/23.

7. Anonymous, conversation with the author, Vilnius, September 1991; Fidelgolts.

8. Głowacki, pp. 320–405.

9. Bardach, p. 156.

10. Dostoevsky, p. 170.

11. Finkelstein, interview with the author.

12. Buca, p. 26.

13. Finkelstein, interview with the author.

14. Larina, p. 149.

15. Gliksman, pp. 230–31.

16. Panin, p. 36.

17. Ptasnik, pp. 846–54.

18. Noble, p. 71.

19. Tiif, p. 125.

20. Buca, p. 29.

21. Znamenskaya, pp. 20–22.

22. Karta, Kazimierz Zamorski Collection, Folder 1, Files 1253 and 6294.

23. Zabolotsky, p. xx.

24. Bershadskaya, pp. 47–49.

25. E. Ginzburg,
Journey into the Whirlwind
, p. 229.

26. Yakovenko, pp. 176–79.

27. Gagen-Torn, pp. 69–72.