Gulag (94 page)

35. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. III, p. 209.

36.
Volya
(2–3), 1994, p. 309.

37. Bershadskaya, p. 87.

38. Ibid., pp. 95–97.

25: Thaw—and Release

1. Andrei Voznesensky, “Children of the Cult,” reprinted in Cohen, p. 184.

2. Craveri and Khlevnyuk, p. 187.

3. Negretov, interview with the author.

4. “Materialy soveshchaniya rukovodyashchikh rabotnikov ITL i kolonii MVD SSSR, 27 Sent–1 Okt. 1954,” in the collection of the Memorial Society. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 66; Okhotin and Roginsky, pp. 58–59; Kovalchuk-Koval, p. 299; Filshtinsky, interview with the author.

5. Smirnova, interview with the author.

6. GARF, 9401/2/450.

7. GARF, 9401/2/450.

8. Khrushchev, p. 559.

9. Ibid., pp. 559–618.

10. Ibid., p. 351.

11. K. Smith, pp. 131–74.

12. GARF, 9401/2/479.

13. GARF, 9401/2/479; Craveri, p. 337; Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 67.

14. Ivanova, ibid., pp. 67–68; Craveri and Khlevnyuk, p. 189.

15. Ivanova, ibid.; Craveri and Khlevnyuk, pp. 188–89.

16. Andreev-Khomiakov, pp. 3–4.

17. Kusurgashev, p. 70.

18. Vera Korneeva, quoted in Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. III, p. 454.

19. Zorin, interview with the author.

20. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 211.

21. Korol, p. 189.

22. GARF, 9489/2/20.

23. Efron,
Miroedikha
, pp. 127–28.

24. Usakova, interview with the author.

25. S. S. Torbin, Vospominaniya, Memorial Archive, 2/2/91; Korol, p. 190.

26. GARF, 9414/3/40.

27. Ilya Golts, “Vorkuta,” in
Minuvshee
, vol. 7, 1992, pp. 352–55.

28. Sgovio, p. 283.

29. A. Morozov, pp. 381–82.

30. Hoover, Fond 89, 18/38.

31. Bulgakov, interview with the author.

32. Antonov-Ovseenko,
The Time of Stalin
, p. 336.

33. K. Smith, p. 133.

34. Cohen, p. 36.

35. K. Smith, p. 135; Hochschild, pp. 222–23.

36. K. Smith, p. 138.

37. Adamova-Sliozberg, pp. 84–86.

38. Rotfort, p. 92.

39. Herling, p. 236.

40. Andreeva, interview with the author.

41. Solzhenitsyn,
Cancer Ward
, p. 202.

42. Cohen, p. 115.

43. Antonov-Ovseenko,
The Time of Stalin
, pp. 332–36.

44. Cohen, p. 26.

45. Antonov-Ovseenko,
The Time of Stalin
, pp. 332–36.

46. Cohen, p. 135.

47. Razgon, p. 50.

48. Yuri Dombrovsky, p. 77. Translated with the help of Galya Vinogradova.

49. Solzhenitsyn,
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. III, p. 455.

50. Korolev, interview with the author.

51. Pechora, interview with the author.

52. Aksyonov, p. 382.

53. Quoted in Adler, p. 141.

54. Vilensky,
Deti Gulaga
, p. 460.

55. Adler, p. 145.

56. Olga Adamova-Sliozberg, “My Journey,” in Vilensky,
Till My Tale Is Told
, p. 70.

57. Adler, p. xx.

58. Merridale, p. 418.

59. Cohen, p. 38.

60. Rothberg, pp. 12–40.

61. The most complete account of Solzhenitsyn’s life is Michael Scammell’s biography,
Solzhenitsyn.
Unless otherwise footnoted, all biographical information about him comes from there.

62. Scammell,
Solzhenitsyn
, p. 415.

63. Ibid., pp. 423–24.

64. Ibid., pp. 448–49.

65. Ibid., p. 485.

66. Sitko,
Gde moi veter?
, p. 318.

67. Rothberg, p. 62.

68. Dyakov, pp. 60–67.

26: The Era of the Dissidents

1. Reprinted in Cohen, p. 183.

2. Sobolev, p. 68.

3.
Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR
, pp. 48–53.

4. Committee on the Judiciary (Testimony of Avraham Shifter).

5. GARF, 9410/2/497.

6. Committee on the Judiciary (Testimony of Avraham Shifter).

7. R. Medvedev, p. ix.

8.
Sobranie dokumentov samizdata
, AS 143. (This is a collection of samizdat documents gathered by RFE-RL from the 1960s onward. The documents were not “published,” but rather photocopied, bound, numbered, and placed in a few major libraries.)

9.
Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR
, pp. 18–23.

10.
Sobranie dokumentov samizdata
, AS 127.

11.
Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR
, pp. 18–23.

12. Reddaway,
Uncensored Russia
, p. 11.

13. Joseph Brodsky, pp. 26–27.

14. Rothberg, pp. 127–33.

15. Hoover, Josef Brodsky Collection, Transcript of the Brodsky Trial.

16. Ibid.

17. Browne, p. 3.

18. Cohen, p. 42; Reddaway,
Uncensored Russia
, p. 19.

19. Hopkins, pp. 1–14.

20.
Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR
, p. 21.

21. Browne, p. 9.

22. Litvinov,
The Trial of the Four
, pp. 5–11.

23. Browne, p. 13.

24. Thirty years later, Chornovil, then a leading figure in the Ukrainian independence movement, became independent Ukraine’s first ambassador to Canada. Before he left, I interviewed him in Lvov, in 1990.

25. Reddaway,
Uncensored Russia
, pp. 95–111.

26. Ibid., p. 19.

27. Info-Russ, #0044 (see Archives in Bibliography). This is where Vladimir Bukovsky has posted the documents he obtained while carrying out research for the trial of the Communist Party, described later in this book. The documents later became the subject of his 1996 book,
Moskovskii protsess
, published in French and Russian. Some are also stored at Hoover, Fond 89.

28. Reddaway,
Uncensored Russia
, p. 24.

29. Ibid., pp. 1–47; also
Chronicle of Current Events.

30. Hopkins, p. 122.

31. Ratushinskaya, p. 67.

32. Marchenko,
My Testimony
, p. 17.

33. Ibid., pp. 220–27.

34. Sitko, interview with the author.

35. Ratushinskaya, pp. 60–62.

36. Viktor Shmirov, conversation with the author, March 31, 1998.

37. Fedorov, interview with the author.

38. Marchenko,
My Testimony
, p. 349.

39. Fedorov, interview with the author.

40. Ratushinskaya, pp. 174–75.

41. Fedorov, interview with the author.

42. Marchenko,
My Testimony
, p. 68.

43. E. Kuznetsov, p. 169.

44.
Chronicle of Current Events
, no. 32, July 17, 1974.

45. Bukovsky,
To Build a Castle
, p. 45.

46. Marchenko,
My Testimony
, pp. 90–91; E. Kuznetsov, pp. 165–66.

47.
Chronicle of Current Events
, no. 6, February 1969, quoted in Reddaway,
Uncensored Russia
, p. 207.

48.
Chronicle of Current Events
, ibid., quoted in Reddaway, ibid., pp. 20–216.

49. Marchenko,
My Testimony
, p. 69.

50. Sharansky, p. 236.

51. Marchenko,
My Testimony
, p. 115; Tokes, p. 84.

52. Sharansky, p. 235; Ratushinskaya, pp. 165–78.

53.
Sobranie dokumentov samizdata
, AS 2598.

54. Daniel, p. 35.

55. Marchenko,
My Testimony
, pp. 65–69.

56.
Sobranie dokumentov samizdata
, AS 2598.

57.
Chronicle of Current Events
, no. 32, July 1974.

58. Litvinov,
The Trial of the Four
, p. 17.

59. Reddaway and Bloch, p. 305; Yakir.

60.
Chronicle of Current Events
, no. 28, December 1972.

61. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Testimony of Alexandr Shatravka and Dr. Anatoly Koryagin).

62.
Chronicle of Current Events
, no. 33, December 1974.

63. Viktor Shmirov, conversation with the author, March 31, 1998.

64.
Sobranie dokumentov samizdata
, AS 3115.

65. Bukovsky gave an account of his experience at a Warsaw press conference in 1998. The text appears on the Info-Russ Web site (see Archives in Bibliography).

66. Bukovsky,
Moskovskii protsess
, pp. 144–61.

67. Reddaway and Bloch, pp. 48–49; Seton-Watson, pp. 257–58.

68. Bukovksy,
To Build a Castle
, p. 357.

69. Reddaway and Bloch, pp. 176, 140, and 107.

70. Info-Russ, #0202.

71. Reddaway and Bloch, p. 226.

72. Nekipelov, p. 132.

73. Reddaway and Bloch, pp. 220–21; Nekipelov, p. 132.

74.
Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR
, p. 190; photograph on p. 194.

75. Reddaway and Bloch, p. 214.

76.
Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR
, pp. 197–98.

77. “Three Voices of Dissent,”
Survey
, no. 77 (Autumn 1970).

78. Nekipelov, p. 115.

79. Reddaway and Bloch, p. 348.

80. Ibid., pp. 79–96.

81. Ibid., pp. 178–80.

82. Info-Russ, #0204.

83. Ibid.

27: The 1980s: Smashing Statues

1. Reprinted in Reavey, pp. 8–9.

2. Beichman and Bernstam, pp. 145–89.

3
. Prisoners of Conscience in the USSR
, pp. 20 and 119; Alekseeva.

4. Beichman and Bernstam, p. 182.

5. Reagan, pp. 675–79.

6. Berdzenishvili, interview with the author.

7. Ibid.

8. Bukovsky,
To Build a Castle
, p. 408.

9. Ibid.

10. Berdzenishvili, interview with the author.

11. Ratushinskaya, p. 236.

12. Walker, p. 142.

13. Reddaway, “Dissent in the Soviet Union.”

14. Gorbachev, p. 24.

15. Remnick, p. 50.

16. Ibid., pp. 264–68.

17. K. Smith, pp. 131–74; Remnick, p. 68.

18. Remnick, pp. 101–19; K. Smith, pp. 131–74.

19.
USSR: Human Rights in a Time of Change.

20. “Lata Dissidentów,”
Karta
, no. 16, 1995.

21. “On the Death of Prisoner of Conscience Anatoly Marchenko,” Amnesty International Press Release, May 1987 (ML).

22. Ibid.

23. The closure of the camps does not, for example, figure in Walker’s
The Waking Giant
; Matlock’s,
Autopsy on an Empire
; Brown’s
The Gorbachev Factor
; or Kaiser’s
Why Gorbachev
Happened
. The important exception is Remnick’s
Lenin’s Tomb
, which includes a chapter on the last prisoners of Perm-35.

24. Paul Hofheinz, former Moscow-based reporter, conversation with the author, February 13, 2002.

25. Matlock, p. 275.

25. Remnick, p. 270.

27. Walker, p. 147.

28. Info-Russ, #0128.

29. Ibid., #1404.

30. Ibid., #0130.

31.
USSR: Human Rights in a Time of Change.

32.
The Recent Release of Prisoners in the USSR
, Amnesty International Press Release, April 1987 (ML).

33. Ibid.

34. Amnesty International Weekly Update Service, April 8, 1987 (ML).

35. Berdzenishvili, interview with the author.

36. Amnesty International Newsletter, June 1988, vol. XVIII, no. 6 (ML).

37. “Four Long-Term Prisoners Still Awaiting a Review,” Amnesty International Press Release, April 1990; also Amnesty International Newsletter, October 1990, vol. XX, no. 10 (ML); Klymchak was released by the end of the year.

38. Matlock, p. 287.

39. “Russian Federation: Overview of Recent Legal Changes,” Amnesty International Press Release, September 1993 (ML).

40. Matlock, p. 295.

41. Quoted in Cohen, p. 186.

Epilogue: Memory

1. Razgon,
True Stories
, p. 27.

2. K. Smith, pp. 153–59.

3. Alexander Yakovlev, Chairman of the Russian Presidential Commission on Rehabilitation of the Victims of Political Repression, conversation with the author, February 25, 2002.

4. Merridale, pp. 407–8.

5. Gessen.

6. Alexander Yakovlev, conversation with the author, February 25, 2002.

7. I described this incident in “Secret Agent Man,”
The Weekly Standard
, April 10, 2000.

8. About 130 skeletons were discovered in the cellar of a west Ukrainian monastery in July 2002, for example.
Moscow Times
, July 18, 2002.

9. Applebaum, “Secret Agent Man,”
The Weekly Standard
, April 10, 2000.

10. Olga Adamova-Sliozberg, “My Journey,” in Vilensky,
Till My Tale Is Told
, p. 16.

11. Andrew Alexander, “The Soviet Threat Was Bogus,”
The Spectator
, April 20, 2002.

12. Vidal.

Appendix: How Many?

1. Bacon, pp. 8–9.

2. Conquest,
The Great Terror
, p. 485.

3. Getty, p. 8.

4. Zemskov, “Arkhipelag Gulag,” pp. 6–7; Getty, Ritterspoon, and Zemskov, Appendixes A and B, pp. 1048–49.

5. Getty, Ritterspoon, and Zemskov, p. 1047.

6. Bacon, p. 112.

7. Pohl,
The Stalinist Penal System
, p. 17.

8. Pohl, ibid., p. 15; Zemskov, “Gulag,” p. 17.

9. The best summary to date of the debate about the post-1991 statistical revelations can be found in Bacon, pp. 6–41 and 101–22: the 18 million in his figure, based on turnover rates and available statistics. For the record, Dugin claims that 11.8 million people were arrested between 1930 and 1953, but I find this hard to reconcile with the 8 million known to have been arrested by 1940, particularly given the huge numbers arrested and released during the Second World War (Dugin, “Stalinizm, Legendy i Fakty”).

10. Overy, p. 297; Zagorulko, pp. 331–33.

11. Pohl,
The Stalinist Penal System
, pp. 50–52; Zemskov, “Gulag,” pp. 4–6.

12. Polyan, p. 239.