Gulag (93 page)

40. Beevor, pp. 409–10.

41. Ibid., p. 411.

42. Zagorulko, pp. 31 and 333.

43. Ibid., pp. 25–33.

44. S. I. Kuznetsov, pp. 618–19.

45. The figures are from Overy, p. 297, and come from a Soviet document of 1956. Another Soviet document of 1949, reprinted in Zagorulko, pp. 331–33, contains similar numbers (2,079,000 Germans, 1,220,000 non-Germans, 590,000 Japanese, and 570,000 dead).

46. Gustav Menczer, head of the Hungarian Gulag survivors’ society, conversation with the author, February 2002.

47. Bien, unpublished memoir.

48. Knight, “The Truth about Wallenberg.”

49. Andrzej Paczkowski, “Poland, the Enemy Nation,” in Courtois, pp. 372–75.

50. “Kuzina Gitlera,”
Novaya Izvestiya
, April 3, 1998, p. 7.

51. Noble.

52. Zagorulko, p. 131.

53. Ibid., p. 333. There were about 20,000 POWs in the Gulag.

54. Ibid., pp. 1042 and 604–9.

55. Ibid., pp. 667–68.

56. Ibid., p. 38.

57. Naimark,
The Russians in Germany
, p. 43.

58. Zagorulko, pp. 40 and 54–58.

59.
Vostochnaya Evropa
, p. 270.

60. Ibid., pp. 370 and 419–22.

61. GARF, 9401/2/497.

62. Zagorulko, pp. 40 and 54–58. Most POWs were released by the early 1950s, though 20,000 remained in the USSR at the time of Stalin’s death.

63. Sitko,
Tyazhest sveta
, p. 10.

64. Bethell, p. 17.

65. Ibid.

66. Ibid., pp. 166–69.

67. Ibid., pp. 103–65.

68. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 43.

69. Pohl,
The Stalinist Penal System
, p. 51.

70. Pohl, ibid., pp. 50–52.

71. GARF, 7523/4/164.

72. GARF, 9401/1a/135.

73. GARF, 9414/1/76.

74. GARF, 9401/1a/135; 9401/1/76; and 9401/1a/136.

75. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 43.

76. Kruglov, pp. 66, 256, and 265.

77. Vilensky, interview with the author.

78. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 43.

79. GARF, 9414/1/76.

80. Described in Joffe, pp. 199–200.

81. Klein,
Ulybki nevoli
, pp. 396–403.

82. Hava Volovich, “My Past,” in Vilensky,
Till My Tale Is Told
, p. 259.

83. Wallace, p. 137.

84. Ibid., p. 117.

85. GARF, 9401/2/65; Sgovio, p. 251; Wallace, pp. 33–41.

86. Wallace, pp. 33–41; and Sgovio, p. 251.

87. Vera Ustieva, “Podarok dlya vitse-prezidenta,” in Vilensky,
Osventsim Gez Pechei
, pp. 98–106.

88. Wallace, pp. 127–28.

89. Sgovio, p. 245.

90. Wallace, pp. 33–41.

91. Sgovio, p. 252.

92. Wallace, p. 205.

21: Amnesty—and Afterward

1. In Taylor-Terlecka, p. 144. Translated with the help of Piotr Paszkowski.

2. GARF, 9414/1/68; Zemskov, “Sudba Kulatskoi ssylki,” pp. 129–42; Martin, “Stalinist Forced Relocation Policies.”

3. GARF, 9401/1/743.

4. Bacon, p. 112.

5. The number of prisoners in forestry camps dropped from 338,850 in 1941 to 122,960 in 1944. Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 112.

6. Sgovio, p. 242.

7. Gorbatov, pp. 150–51.

8. Committee on the Judiciary (Testimony of Avraham Shifrin).

9. Gorbatov, pp. 169, 174–75, and 194.

10. GARF, 7523/64/687 and 8–15.

11. See, for example, Overy, pp. 79–80.

12. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 30.

13. GARF, 9414/1/1146.

14. Mindlin, p. 61.

15. GARF, 9414/4/145.

16. Bacon, pp. 135–37, 140–41, and 144.

17. GARF, 9414/1/68.

18. Sword pp. 30–36.

19. Ibid., p. 48.

20. Herling, p. 190.

21. Karta, Anders Army Collection, V/AC/127.

22. Karta, Kazimierz Zamorski Collection, Folder 1, File 15885 and Folder 1, File 15882.

23. Herling, p. 228.

24. Waydenfeld, pp. 195–334.

25. Zarod, p. 234.

26. Janusz Wedów, “Powitanie Wodza,” in Taylor-Terlecka, p. 145.

27. Czapski, p. 243.

28. Sword, pp. 60–87.

29.
Slave Labor in Russia
, p. 31.

30. Djilas, p. 114.

31. Kotek and Rigoulot, p. 527.

32. Ibid., pp. 549 and 542.

33. Ibid., pp. 539–43 and 548–56.

34. Ibid., pp. 543–44.

35. Ibid., pp. 544–48; also Andrzej Paczkowski, “Poland, the Enemy Nation,” in Courtois, pp. 363–93.

36. Kotek and Rigoulot, pp. 565–72.

37. Todorov,
Voices from the Gulag
, p. 124.

38. Ibid., pp. 123–28.

39. Kotek and Rigoulot, p. 559.

40. Naimark,
The Russians in Germany
, pp. 376–97.

41. Todorov,
Voices from the Gulag
, pp. 39–40.

42. Saunders, pp. 1–11; Kotek and Rigoulot, pp. 619–48.

43. Ogawa and Yoon, p. 15.

44. Ibid., p. 3.

45. Alla Startseva and Valerya Korchagina, “Pyongyang Pays Russia with Free Labor,”
Moscow Times
, August 6, 2001, p. 1.

22: The Zenith of the Camp–Industrial Complex

1. From
Sred drugikh imen
, p. 64.

2. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 279.

3. See Elena Zubkova,
Russia After the War
.

4. Service,
A History of Twentieth-Century Russia
, p. 299.

5. GARF, 9401/1/743 and 9401/2/104.

6. Kokurin and Petrov,
Gulag
, p. 540.

7. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, pp. 95–96.

8. Service,
A History of Twentieth-Century Russia
, p. 299; Ivanova, “Poslevoennye repressii.”

9. Andrew and Gordievsky, p. 341.

10. Ivanova, “Poslevoennye repressii,” p. 256.

11. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, pp. 48–53.

12. Operation WRINGER, HQ USAF Record Group 341, Box 1044, Air Intelligence Report 59B-B-5865-B. Records of this debriefing operation are kept in the National Archives, Washington, D.C. I am grateful to Major Tim Falkowski for bringing this story to my attention. The U.S. Air Force considers this story plausible, but has not yet confirmed it for certain.

13. Nikolai Morozov told me this story. Komi Memorial has interviewed the inhabitants of Sedvozh, looking for oral evidence, but has found only one man who has heard the whole story, second-hand. Lyuba Vinogradova found the reference to the Scotsmen at RGVA, but the document itself was missing. RGVA was not willing to provide further information.

14. Bacon, p. 24.

15. Nicolas Werth, “Apogee and Crisis in the Gulag System,” in Courtois, pp. 235–39.

16. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 55–56.

17. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 283.

18. Ibid., pp. 290–91.

19. Ibid., p. 291.

20. Adamova-Sliozberg, p. 71.

21. Razgon, p. 220.

22. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, pp. 55–56.

23. Ibid., p. 56.

24. Kokurin and Morukov, “Gulag: struktura i kadry,” (part 14),
Svobodnaya Mysl
, no. 11, November 2000.

25. Kuts, p. 195.

26. Bulgakov, interview with the author.

27. Kuts, p. 165.

28. Pechora, interview with the author.

29. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 61.

30. Kokurin and Petrov,
Gulag
, pp. 555–57; Kokurin, “Vosstanie v Steplage.”

31. Kokurin, “Vosstanie v Steplage”; Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 55.

32. Abramkin and Chesnokova, p. 10.

33. GARF, 9401/1a/270.

34. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 103.

35. Abramkin and Chesnokova, pp. 10–11.

36. Zhigulin, pp. 135–37.

37. Buca, pp. 59–61.

38. Georgy Feldgun, unpublished memoir.

39. Sitko, interview with the author.

40. Zhigulin, pp. 135–37.

41. GARF, 9401/1/4240.

42. See, for example, Ilya Golts, “Vorkuta,” in
Minuvshee
, vol. 7, 1992, pp. 317–55.

43. Craveri and Khlevnyuk.

44. Ivanova, “Poslevoennye repressii.”

45. Kokurin and Morukov.

46. Craveri and Khlevnyuk, p. 186.

47. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 125.

48. Ivanova, “Poslevoennye repressii,” p. 272.

49. Craveri and Khlevnyuk, p. 183.

50. Craveri.

51. Nicolas Werth, “Apogee and Crisis in the Gulag System,” in Courtois, pp. 239–40.

52. Craveri and Khlevnyuk, p. 183.

53. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 125.

54. See, for example, Klein,
Ulybki nevoli
, p. 61.

55. Berdinskikh, p. 56.

56. Craveri and Khlevnyuk, p. 185.

57. Ibid., p. 186.

58. Knight,
Beria
, pp. 160–69.

59. Naumov and Rubinstein, pp. 61–62.

60. Ibid., p. 62.

61. Adamova-Sliozberg, p. 79.

62. Filshtinsky, p. 114.

23: The Death of Stalin

1. Quoted in Conquest,
Stalin
, p. 312.

2. Aleksandrovich, p. 57.

3. Ulyanovskaya, p. 280.

4. Andreeva, interview with the author.

5. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 357.

6. Negretov, interview with the author.

7. Stajner, p. 358.

8. Berdinskikh, p. 204.

9. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 360.

10. Aleksandrovich, p. 57.

11. Adamova-Sliozberg, p. 80.

12. Roeder, p. 195.

13. Vasileeva, interview with the author.

14. Khrushchev, vol. I, pp. 322–23.

15. E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, p. 357.

16. Knight,
Beria
, p. 185.

17. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 124.

18. Naumov and Sigachev, pp. 19–21 (APRF, 3/52/100).

19. Knight,
Beria
, p. 185.

20. Ibid.

21. Naumov and Sigachev, pp. 28–29 (GARF, 9401/1/1299).

22. Knight,
Beria
, pp. 188–94.

23. Ivanova,
Labor Camp Socialism
, p. 124.

24. For analyses of Beria’s motives, see Khlevnyuk, “L. P. Beriya”; Pikhoya, Sovetskii Soyuz, p. xxx; Knight,
Beria
, pp. 176–200.

25. Knight, ibid., pp. 194–224.

26. Dolgun, p. 261.

27. Alexandrovich, p. 57.

28. Zorin, interview with the author.

29. Filshtinsky, interview with the author.

30. Armonas, pp. 153–60.

31. Pechora, interview with the author.

32. Trus, interview with the author.

33. Usakova, interview with the author.

34. Zorin, interview with the author.

35. Khachatryan, interview with the author.

36. GARF document, order from September 3, 1955, in the collection of the author.

37. Bulgakov, interview with the author; Ilya Golts, “Vorkuta,” in
Minuvshee
, vol. 7, 1992, p. 334.

24: The Zeks’ Revolution

1. Anna Barkova, “In the Prison Camp Barracks,” quoted in Vilensky,
Dodnes tyagoteet
, p. 341.

2. See, for example, E. Ginzburg,
Within the Whirlwind
, pp. 359–63; Dolgun, pp. 261–62; Hoover, Adam Galinski Collection.

3. Panin, p. 306.

4. Ilya Golts, “Vorkuta,” in
Minuvshee
, vol. 7, 1992, p. 334.

5. For a description of the Ukrainian underground’s attitudes to informers see Burds.

6. Panin, pp. 308–10.

7. Sitko,
Gde moi veter?
, pp. 181–90.

8. Craveri, p. 323.

9. Kosyk, p. 56.

10. GARF, 9413/1/159.

11. N. A. Morozov,
Osobye lagerya MVD SSSR
, pp. 23–24.

12. N. A. Morozov, ibid., pp. 24–25; Noble, p. 143.

13. Noble, p. 143.

14. GARF, 9413/1/160.

15. GARF, 9413/1/160; N. A. Morozov, Osobye lagerya MVD SSSR, p. 27.

16. Noble, p. 144.

17. GARF, 9413/1/160.

18. Buca. Buca was clearly there: aspects of his account tally with the official reports. What I doubt was his leading role.

19. Kosyk, pp. 61 and 56–65.

20. Vilensky, interview with the author.

21. Bulgakov, interview with the author.

22. Kuts, p. 198.

23. GARF, 9413/1/160.

24. Ibid.

25. Hoover, Adam Galinski Collection.

26. Buca, pp. 271 and 272.

27. Noble, p. 162.

28. Berdinskikh, pp. 239–40.

29. “Materialy soveshchaniya rukovodyashchikh rabotnikov ITL i kolonii MVD SSSR, 27 Sent–1 Okt 1954,” in the collection of Memorial.

30. Morozov and Rogachev.

31. GARF, 9401/1/4240.

32. GARF, 9413/1/160 and 159.

33. This account of the Kengir uprising was put together through a comparison and synthesis of several sources. A collection of archival documents concerning the uprising were compiled and annotated by Alexander Kokurin (“Vosstanie v Steplage”). The Italian historian Marta Craveri has written the most reliable account of the uprising to date, using these documents and others, as well as interviews with participants (Craveri, “Krizis Gulaga,” p. 324). A more uneven account of the uprising was also put together using Ukrainian opposition sources in Volodymyr Kosyk’s
Concentration Camps in the USSR.
I also made use of several written accounts of the uprising, notably Lyubov Bershadskaya’s Rastoptannye zhizni, pp. 86–97, and N. L. Kekushev’s
Zveriada
, pp. 130–43, as well as the documents and memoirs published in the periodical
Volya
(2–3), 1994, pp. 307–70. I interviewed Irena Arginskaya, who was present in Steplag during the uprising as well. Solzhenitsyn’s account, also put together from interviews with participants, appears in
The Gulag Archipelago
, vol. III, pp. 285–331. If not specifically footnoted, all descriptions of events are based on these sources. I have adhered to Craveri’s chronology.

34. This is Marta Craveri’s observation.