Japan's Comfort Women (46 page)

( January 22, 1946) in USNA Collection, RG 331, SCAP, Box 9370, “Venereal Disease Control: 1945–1946,” Document No. 37.

92 Kobayashi Daijir
d
and Murase Akira, op. cit., pp. 87–88; Duus Masayo, op. cit., pp.

202–203.

93 Strangely, documents related to the introduction of the nationwide “off-limits” policy are not included in a large volume of files on VD problems prepared by PHW

Section, USNA Collection, RG 331, SCAP, Box 9370, “Venereal Disease Control: 1945–1946.”

94 Itsushima Tsutomu, ed., op. cit., pp. 76–79; Duus Masayo, op. cit., pp. 223–224.

95 Stated by Bruce Ruxton, a former member of BCOF and presently the president of the Returned Services League (i.e. an Australian veterans organization) in the state of Victoria. The interview appeared in ‘RSL denies mass rape in occupied Japan,’

The Australian
, September 24, 1993.

96 Yoshimi Kaneko, op. cit., pp. 206–212; Kanzaki Kiyoshi, op. cit., p. 384; Duus Masayo, op. cit., p. 230.

97 Kanzaki Kiyoshi, op. cit., p. 384; Duus Masayo, op. cit., p. 234.

98 “Letter from R. L. Eichelberger, Commanding General, Eighth Army, to Commander-in-Chief, Far East, Subject: Suppression of Prostitution” ( January 4, 1947) in USNA Collection, RG 331, SCAP, Box 9370, “Abolition of Licenced Prostitution.”

99 Itsushima Tsutomu, ed., op. cit., p. 80.

100 Ibid., pp. 53–58.

101 Tsutsumi Mineo, “Senry
d
ka no Gunji Saiban” in Shis
d
no Kagaku Kenky
e
-kai ed.,
KyDdD KenkyE Nippon SenryD
( Tokuuma Shoten, Tokyo, 1972), in particular pp. 347– 349.

102 Itsushima Tsutomu, ed., op. cit., pp. 58–62.

103 Ibid., p. 85.

104 Ibid., p. 85.

105 Kanagawa-ken Keisatsu Hombu Keistasu-shi Hensan Iinkai ed., op. cit., pp. 693– 696.

106 Duus Masayo, op. cit., p. 292.

107 Cited in Duus Masayo, op. cit., p. 292.

108 It was in 1956 that the Diet finally passed the bill to make illegal any form of prostitution in Japan. Yet, clandestine prostitution has been widely practised all over Japan since the law was enacted. Traditional red-light districts, such as Yoshiwara in Tokyo, are still a Mecca of the sex industry, attracting many Japanese businessmen, bureaucrats, and politicians – often guests of large corporations. For details of Japan’s present sex industry, see, for example, Yoshimi Kaneko, op. cit., pp. 216–257.

204

Notes

Epilogue

1 There are a number of publications on the history of the karayuki-san system. The most well known work in Japanese is probably Morisaki Kazue’s
Karayuki-san
(Asahi Shimbun-sha, Tokyo, 1977). Some publications on this topic are also available in English, such as Yamazaki Tomoko,
Sandakan Brothel No. 8: An Episode in the History of
Lower-class Japanese Women
(M. E. Sharpe, New York, 1999); and Jim Warren,
Ah Ku
and Karayuki-san: Prostitution in Singapore 1870–1940
(Oxford University Press, Singapore, 1993).

2 Morisaki Kazue, op. cit., pp. 66–69.

3 Fujinaga Takeshi, “Shanhai no Nippongun Ianjyo to Ch
d
senjin” in Katsura Mitsumasa
et al
. eds,
Kokusai Toshi Shanhai
(
i
saka Sangy
d
Daigaku Kenky
e
jo, Osaka, 1995) pp.

113–120.

4 Ibid., pp. 120–122.

5 Shimizu Hiroshi, “Karayuki-san and the Japanese Economic Advance into British Malaya, 1870–1920” in
Asian Studies Review
, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Asian Studies Association of Australia, Melbourne, 1997) pp. 107–108.

6 Yoshimi Kaneko,
BaishD no Shakai-shi
(Y
e
zankaku Shuppan, Tokyo, 1992) p. 10.

7 Shimizu Hiroshi, op. cit., pp. 111–114.

8 Karen Colligan-Taylor, “Translator’s Introduction” in Yamazaki Tomoko, op. cit., pp. xviii-xxiv.

9 Morisaki Kazue, op. cit., pp. 22–55.

10 Yoshimi Kaneko, op. cit., pp. 7–8.

11 Yamazaki Tomoko, op. cit., pp. 9–14.

12 Morisaki Kazue, op. cit., Chapters 4 & 5.

13 Shimizu Hiroshi, op. cit., p. 119–120.

14 Ibid., pp. 120–121.

15 K. Tsukuda and S. Kato,
NanyD no Shin Nihonjinmura
(Nanbokusha, Tokyo, 1919) pp. 101–102, cited by Shimizu Hiroshi, op. cit., p. 107.

16 Yoshimi Kaneko, op. cit., p. 12.

17 Fukuzawa Yukichi, “Jinmin no Ijy
e
to Sh
d
fu no Dekasegi” in
Jiji ShinpD
, January 18, 1896, cited by Yoshimi Kaneko, op. cit., p. 11.

18 Fujinaga Takeshi, “Nichi-Ro Sens
d
to Nippon ni yoru ‘Manshu’ e no K
d
sh
d
Seido Ishoku” in
Osaka Sangyo University Research Studies
No. 8 (Osaka Sangyo Daigaku, Osaka, 1998) pp. 63–64; Morisaki Kazue, op. cit., pp. 132–142.

19 Fujinaga Takeshi, “Nichi-Ro Sens
d
to Nippon ni yoru ‘Manshu’ e no K
d
sh
d
Seido Ishoku” pp. 67–70.

20 Ibid., pp. 73–91.

21 Ibid., pp. 91–92.

22 Julia O’Connell Davidson,
Prostitution, Power and Freedom
( Polity Press, Cambridge, 1998) p. 134.

23 Ibid., p. 134.

24 Ibid., p. 134.

25 Ibid., p. 134.

26 W. Broyles Jr., “Why Men Love War” in Walter Capps ed.,
The Vietnam Reader
( Routledge, London, 1991) p. 79.

27 ANA Collection, MP76/3, G135, “Sir James Barret, Medical Control Venereal Diseases”; Richard Holmes,
Acts of War: the Behaviour of Men in Battle
(Free Press, New York, 1985) pp. 95–96.

28 Richard Holmes, op. cit., p. 97.

29 For a more detailed psycho-social analysis of the relationship between sexual violence and war, see Yuki Tanaka,
Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II
( Westview, Boulder, 1996) pp. 105–109; and Ruth Seifert, “War and Rape: A Preliminary Analysis” in Alexandra Stiglmayer ed
.
,
Mass Rape: The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina
Notes

205

(University of Nebraska, Lincoln, 1994) pp. 54–72. In particular, the argument in her “Thesis 3” is useful in this context.

30 Y. Tanaka, op. cit., p. 107.

31 A. Nicholas Groth,
Men Who Rape: The Psychology of the Offender
(Plenum Press, New York, 1979) pp. 25–44.

32 Ibid., p. 30.

33 Ibid., p. 58. The power rape is also a widely practised but hidden problem among incarcerated men at penal institutions. Homosexual rape is often used by a kingpin prisoner to feminize other prisoners and to demonstrate his power over them. Very little research has so far been conducted on this topic, but some useful information is available in David Heilpern,
Fear of Favour: Sexual Assault of Young Prisoners
(Southern Cross University Press, Lismore, 1998).

34 For details of sexual crimes committed by American soldiers in Okinawa, see, for example, Takazato Suzuyo,
Okinawa no Onna-tachi: JyosB no Jinken to Kichi, Guntai
(Akashi Shoten, Tokyo, 1996)

35 Shimabukuro S
d
k
d
and Urashima Etsuko, “Kichi naki Okinawa o” in
Oruta
, No. 218, January 1996, p. 15.

36 Ch
e
kan Beigun Hanzai Konzetsu no tame no Und
d
Hombu ed.,
ChEkan Beigun Hanzai
Hakusho
(Aoki Shoten, Tokyo, 1999) pp. 26–28, 123–133.

37 Cynthia Enloe,
The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War
(University of California Press, Berkley, 1993), in particular Chapter 5.

38 Ibid., p. 145.

39 Henry Reynolds,
The Other Side of Frontier: Aboriginal Resistance to the European Invasion of
Australia
(Penguin Books Australia, 1981) pp. 70–72. For more details of the historical process of the colonization of Australian Aborigines by the Europeans, see, for example, Henry Reynolds,
Dispossession: Black and White Invaders
(Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1996).

40 Okuyama Ry
d
,
Ainu SuibD-shi
(Miyama Shob
d
, Sapporo, 1966) pp. 140–143, 146–155; Sekiba Fujihiko,
Ainu Ijidan
(originally published in 1896 and reproduced by Hokkaid
d
Shuppan Kikaku Sent
a
in Sapporo in 1980) p. 165. For example, it is estimated that, between 1822 and 1874, the Ainu population in western Hokkaido decreased by one-sixth, and, according to Dr. Sekiba Fujihiko, a general practitioner who worked in Hokkaido in the Meiji period, syphilis was still one of the most common diseases among his Ainu patients in the mid-1890s.

41 See, for example, Ronald Hyam,
Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience
(Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990).

42 See, for example, John Ingleson, “Prostitution in Colonial Java” in D. P. Chadler and M. C. Ricklefs eds.,
Ninteenth and Twentieth Century Indonesia: Essays in Honour of Professor
J. D. Legge
(Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, Melbourne, 1986).

43 SOFA stands for Status of Forces Agreement, but the full title of this agreement is “Agreement under Article IV of the Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States of America and the Republic of Korea, regarding facilities and areas and the status of US Armed Forces in the Republic of Korea.”

44 This information was provided to the author by Ms. Jeong Yu-jin, Secretary General of the National Campaign for Eradication of Crimes by US Troops in Korea.

45 Iris Young,
Justice and the Politics of Difference
(Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1990) p. 64.

46 Takamure Itsue,
JyosB no Rekishi, Vol. 2
(K
d
dan-sha, Tokyo, 1972) pp. 43–47.

47 For details of Japan’s modern history of its licensed prostitution industry and how tax on prostitutes was used to gain government revenue, see Fujime Yuki, “The Licensed Prostitution System and the Prostitution Abolish Movement in Modern Japan”

in
Position
, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1997, as well as her Japanese book,
Sei no Rekishigaku
(Fuji Shuppan, Tokyo, 1998). Fujime is one of a growing number of Japanese feminist scholars who are trying to re-examine Japan’s modern history from feminist perspectives.

206

Index

Index

abduction,
see
procurement

Bankong Internment Camp 73

Aberdeen Proving Ground 130

barmaids 16, 36, 69, 71

Aborigines,
see
Australia

Barn, Fr Patrick 114

abortion,
see
pregnancy and abortion

bars 36, 37, 135, 161

Adelaide 103

Batavia 61, 65–6, 69, 72, 79; War Crimes Tribunal

advance payment 35, 37, 42, 43, 44, 50, 54, 170

76, 78

Africa 92, 101, 106–7

Bayne-Jones, Col. Stanhope 90

Ainu,
see
Japan

Beaufort 81

alcohol,
see
drunkenness

beer halls,
see
bars

Algeria 106

Beijing 18, 22

Allied Committee on the Enforcement of the Peace

Beirut 96

Treaty in Germany 114

Benedict, Ruth 85

Allied Translator and Interpreter Service 84

Bengbu 14, 45

Ambarawa 73; No. 6 Internment Camp 73, 74 –5;

Bernasco, Mrs 62

No. 9 Internment Camp 73, 74, 76

Black Spring
127

Amenities in the Japanese Armed Forces
84

Blora 62

And
d
Rikichi, Lt-Gen. 27

Bogor Internment Camp 76

Andong 171–2

Borneo 27, 28, 61, 80–1

Antigua 101

Bosnia-Herzegovina 50, 177; rape factories xvi, 50,

Antique 49–50

174 –5, 181

Aoji Washio 69

Bourland, Maj. Philip 159

Aragaki Hideo 114

Brisbane 103

Argo, Col. 86–7

Britain: indifference to comfort women 82, 83, 86;

Army and Navy Chaplains Association, Tokyo—

military-controlled prostitution 92–3, 175; sailors

Yokohama Chapter 159–61

116, 168

Arnold, R. 92

British Commonwealth Occupation Forces 126, 131,

arson 13, 24

156, 160

Aruba 100

British Guyana 99, 100, 101

Asahi Shimbun
113–14, 124, 125

British Malaya 168

Asahi-ch
d
119–20

British-Borneo Civil Affairs Unit 80

Asmara 92–3

bromide 175

As
d
Tetsuo, Dr 14

brothel owners 14–15, 18, 19, 23, 27, 35–6, 173

assault,
see
physical abuse

Brumfield, Maj. William 90, 92–8, 99, 100, 101, 107,

Assault No. 1,
see
condoms

109

Atami 143, 148

burglary by Allies 117, 120

atomic bomb 125, 136, 139, 165

Burma 42, 85

Atsugi airbase 115, 116, 119, 121, 147, 151

Buru Island 79

Australia: Aborigines 180; Australian Infantry Forces

butterflies 165

95; BCOF 126, 131; comfort women 167; Committee

of National Morale 103; indifference to comfort

cafés 36, 37

women 82, 83, 86; military prostitution in 99–105;

Cagayan de Oro 47

9th Regiment 80; 7th Australian Division 96;

Cairo 106

tensions between US and Australian troops 102–3;

Cairo Purification Committee 94

34th Australian Infantry Brigade 156; US military—

Camp Polk 91

controlled prostitution in 102; US troops in 102

Camp Sendai 130

Camp Toneyama 130–1

Balikpapan 28, 62, 78–9