Kachina and the Cross (52 page)

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Authors: Carroll L Riley

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Page 258
Review
20 (I) (1940): 158-70. Two good, popular surveys of the Coronado expedition are A. G. Day,
Coronado's Quest
(University of California Press, Berkeley, 1940) and H. E. Bolton,
Coronado, Knight of Pueblos and Plains
(University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1964 [first published in 1949]). Both of these authors have a considerable pro-Spanish bias, which makes their comments on native peoples often suspect. Discussions of Coronado's exploration to the Plains can be found in M. M. Wedel, "The Wichita Indians in the Arkansas River Valley,"
Plains Indians Studies
, D. H. Ubelaker and H. J. Viola, eds. (Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, no. 30, Washington, D.C., 1982), pp. 118-34; see also M. M. Wedel, "The Indian They Called Turco,"
Pathways to Plains Prehistory
, D. G. Wyckoff and J. L. Hofman, eds. (Oklahoma Anthropological Society, Memoir 3, The Cross Timbers Press, Duncan, Okla., 1982), and W. R. Wedel and M. M. Wedel, Wichita Archeology and Ethnohistory,
Kansas and the West
, F. R. Blackburn et al., eds. (H. M. Ives and Sons, Topeka, Kans., 1976), pp. 8-20. The discoveries in Blanco Canyon have been discussed in a number of chapters in R. Flint and S. C. Flint, eds.,
The Coronado Expedition to Tierra Nueva
(University Press of Colorado, Niwot, 1997), esp. C. L. Riley, "Introduction," pp. 1-28; D. J. Blakeslee, "Which Barrancas? Narrowing the Possibilities,'' pp. 302-19; C. L. Riley, "The Teya Indians of the Southwestern Plains,'' pp. 320-43; W. M. Mathes, "A Large Canyon Like Those of Colima," pp. 365-69; and D. J. Blakeslee, R. Flint, and J. T. Hughes, "Una Barranca Grande: Recent Archeological Evidence and a Discussion of Its Place in the Coronado Route," pp. 370-83. D. H. Snow ("'Por alli no ay losa, ni se hace': Gilded Men and Glazed Pottery on the Southern Plains," pp. 344-64) makes insightful comments on the various kinds of pottery that were seeping into the western Plains in Coronado's time. An excellent source on the Coronado and later expeditions to the west Texas area is J. M. Morris,
El Llano Estacado
(Texas State Historical Association, Austin, 1997). For the achievement and especially the failure of the Coronado expedition, consult Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 147-207. The aftermath of the expedition is discussed on pp. 199-224. I suggest that certain things like melons (pp. 214-15), the Mexican game of
patolli
(p. 217), and the Zuni and Hopi Shalako ceremony (pp. 218-20) may date from this interregnum period.
Spanish exploration and settlement in the north interior of Mexico is described in J. L. Mecham,
Francisco de Ibarra and Nueva Vizcaya
(Greenwood Press, New York, 1968). For the Rodrigo del Rio settlement of Indé and Santa Bárbara, see Mecham, 188-89. A discussion of the laws of 1573 (which were some years in preparation) can be found in G. P. Hammond and A. Rey,
The Rediscovery of New Mexico
(University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque,
Page 259
1966), pp. 6-7. For the explorations of the Chamuscado and Espejo expeditions, see Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 225-39, and Hammond and Rey,
Rediscovery,
especially the Gallegos's relación (67-114), the Pedrosa pueblo list (pp. 115-20), the Luxán account (153-212), and the Espejo report (213-31). In the 1770S, Father Silvestre Vélez de Escalante extracted information from the New Mexico Archives and from various other sources for material on the history of New Mexico. He was mainly concerned with the Pueblo Revolt but has brief comments on earlier periods. According to Escalante, Juan de Santa Maria, trying to return to Mexico, was ambushed by Apaches while sleeping. Father López was also killed in an Apache raid, while Rodriguez was murdered by the Pueblos themselves. Escalante believed that the missionaries were in Piro country rather than among the Tiguex. See Silvestre Vélez de Escalante,
Extracto de noticias
(Biblioteca Nacional de México, Archivo Franciscano, 19/397, 20/428/1, from a translation prepared by Eleanor B. Adams, ms. in author's possession, n.d.), pp. 3-5. For the Spanish text of the Oñate contract and a discussion of the Patarabueyes in that contract, see C. W. Hackett,
Historical Documents Relating to New Mexico, Nueva Vizcaya, and Approaches Thereto, to 1773, collected by Adolph F. A. Bandelier and Fanny R. Bandelier
(Carnegie Institution of Washington, 3 vols., 1923-37: vol. I [1923], vol. 2 [1926], vol. 3 [1937]), vol. 1, pp. 224-55. The Patarabueye comment is on pp. 234-35. Viceroy Monterrey's contract revisions can be found on pp. 263-79.
The Castaño and Morlete journeys are reported in Hammond and Rey,
Rediscovery
, 245-310. A detailed discussion of the Castaño route is found in A. H. Schroeder and D. S. Matson,
A Colony on the Move: Gaspar Castaño de Sosa's Journal, 1590-1591
(School of American Research, Santa Fe, N.Mex., 1965). See also Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 242-45. There is a short seventeenth-century account of the Castaño expedition in Alonso de León,
Relación y discursos del descubrimiento, poblacin, y pacificación de este Neubo Reino de León
(1649), in G. García,
Documentos inéditos ó muy raros par a la historia de México:
25 (México, 1909). The Leyva and Humaña expedition is discussed in Hammond and Rey,
Rediscovery
, pp. 323-26; see also Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 245-46, and E. A. H. John,
Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds
(University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1975), pp. 36-37.
The Troyano attempt to gain a place in Southwestern exploration comes in a letter to the king reproduced in F. del Paso y Troncoso,
Epistolario de Nueva España, 1505-1818
(Antigua Libreria Robredo, México, 16 vols., 1939-42), vol. 10, pp. 262-277. Espejo's petition to be allowed to return to New Mexico can be found in Hammond and Rey,
Rediscovery
, pp. 238-39. Late-sixteenth-century would-be settlers of New Mexico are cited in J. F. Bannon,
The Spanish
Page 260
Borderlands Frontier, 1513-1821
(Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1970), p. 34. See also M. Simmons,
The Last Conquistador
(University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1991), pp. 48-49. For a discussion of the native populations of the Southwest in the latter portion of the sixteenth century, see Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 224, 266, 315. See also Riley,
Frontier People
, pp. 177-79, 230-32.
Chapter 4, Oñate
The reasons for colonization in the Southwest are discussed in Riley,
Rio del Norte
, p. 246. That the Spaniards actually thought seriously of sailing ships across the Atlantic to New Mexico is indicated by Oñate's contract of 1595. See Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 1, pp. 22-25, and Monterrey's reaction to the project, vol. 1, pp. 270-73. A discussion of the possible relationship of Basque to the Apachean languages can be found in H. C. Fleming, "Dene-Caucasic, Nostratic and Eurasiatic or VascoDene?"
Mother Tongue
12 (Dec. 1990): 6-12. For the background to Oñate's life, especially valuable works are Simmons,
The Last Conquistador
, esp. chaps. 2 and 3, and D. Chipman, The Oñate-Moctezuma-Zaldívar Families of Northern New Spain,
New Mexico Historical Review
(
NMHR
) 52 (4) (1977): 297-310. Chipman points out (p. 304) that Cristóbal de Oñate's wife, Catalina de Salazar y de la Cadena, had a first husband living in Spain and so might have been a bigamist when she married Cristóbal (at least Chipman believed that there was no evidence for the marriage ever having been annulled). However, D. T. Garate ("Juan de Oñate's
Prueba de Caballero
, 1625: A Look at His Ancestral Heritage,"
Colonial Latin American Historical Review
7 [2] [1998]: 129-73) argues that Catalina's first husband was dead at the time she married Cristóbal de Oñate (p. 158). Garate also presents evidence that Cristóbal de Oñate came not from Vitoria, as is generally stated, but from the small town of Oñate to the north. For Catalina's converso ancestors, see J. A. Esquibel, "New Light on the Jewish-Converso Ancestry of Don Juan de Oñate: A Research Note,"
Colonial Latin American Historical Review
7 (2) (1998): 175-190; also
The Jewish-Converso Ancestry of Don Juan de Oñate
(limited Internet publication, Santa Fe, N.Mex, 1996), esp. sections on the Oñate, Salazar, Cadena-Martínez de Lerma-Mazuelo, Maluenda and Ha-Levi families. Esquibel is uncertain whether Juan de Oñate and his Zaldívar nephews were cognizant of their converso ancestry, seven generations before. However, as the historian Stanley Hordes has pointed out, a generalized memory and practice of Jewish ceremonies among Hispanic Southwestern and northern Mexican families sometime goes back for many generations. See S. M. Hordes, "The Sephardic Legacy in New Mexico: A History of Crypto-Jews,
Journal of the West
35 (4) (1996): 82-89.
Page 261
The date and place of Juan de Oñate's birth are still somewhat uncertain. The 1552 date comes from Lansing Bloom, in a letter from Seville dated Nov. 26, 1938 (see L. Bloom in "News Notes,"
NMHR
14 (I) (1939): 115-20). Bloom (p. 118) stated that he had seen a "probanza of 1578" in which a witness stated that Juan and Cristóbal Oñate were born "de un solo vientre" in 1552 in Zacatecas (presumably at the family estate in Pánuco). There does not seem to be any other indication that Juan and his brother Cristóbal were twins, so perhaps the twin-ship was fraternal (see Simmons,
Last Conquistador
, p. 34).
For a discussion of the Chichimec region, consult P. Kirchhoff, "Los Recolectores-Cazadores del Norte de México,"
El Norte de México y el Sur de Estados Unidos
(Sociedad Mexicana de Antropologia, Tercera Reunión de Mesa Redonda sobre Problemas Antropológicas de México y Centro America, Castillo de Chapultepec, México, 1943), pp. 133-144. An English version of this important paper appears in B. C. Hedrick, J. C. Kelley, and C. L. Riley, eds.,
The North Mexican Frontier
(Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale), pp. 200-209 (translated by C. L. Riley).
A good, though brief discussion of the problems of Juan de Oñate in getting his expedition together comes in G. P. Hammond and A. Rey,
Don Juan de Oñate, Colonizer of New Mexico, 1595-1628
(University of New Mexico Press, 1953, 2 vols.), vol. 1, pp. 7-15; the contract with Viceroy Velasco is given on pp. 42-57; the Monterrey modifications to the contract are given on p. 10. For Oñate's appointment as adelantado, see Hammond and Rey,
Oñate
, vol. 2, pp. 766-67; for the Ulloa inspection, see vol. 1, pp. 94-168. A cautionary note on certain shortcomings in the Hammond and Rey translation is sounded by J. R. Craddock, "Juan de Oñate in Quivira,"
Journal of the Southwest
, vol 40, no. 4, 1998, pp. 481-540. A good summary discussion of the inspection is given in Simmons,
Last Conquistador
, pp. 82-83; see p. 45 for information on the family of Juan de Oñate and Isabel de Tolosa, and on Cristóbal's commission as lieutenant. The boy is not actually cited in the Salazar inspection but, curiously, is listed in the Ulloa inspection (Hammond and Rey,
Oñate
, vol. 1, p. 160). Simmons (
Last Conquistador
, p. 45) states that the daughter of Juan de Oñate and Isabel de Tolosa was born "in late 1598 or early 1599 at the family home in Pánuco." However, unless Isabel was with her husband for the part of the journey northward from Santa Bárbara, any child fathered by Oñate would surely have been born before the end of 1598. The position of Oñate's men as of the end of 1596 is given in Viceroy Monterrey's letter to the king dated November 15, 1596 (Hammond and Rey,
Oñate
, vol. 1, p. 184); for the Salazar inspection, see vol. 1, pp. 199-308. Salazar discusses the reinforcements guaranteed by Juan de Guerra in a letter to the viceroy dated May 4, 1598 (Hammond and Rey,
Page 262
Oñate
, vol. 1, pp. 390-92). A good description of the expedition at launch point comes from Simmons,
Last Conquistador
, pp. 93-97.
For castes in seventeenth-century Chihuahua, see C. Cramaussel, "Ilegítimos y abandonados en la frontera norte: Parral y San Bartolomé en el siglo XVII,"
Colonial Latin American Historical Review
4 (4) (1995): 405-38, 405-10. Chihuahua in the seventeenth century seems to have been a place with a great deal of racial mixture. Not only were there the Indian and mestizo castes, but numbers of Africans lived in the area, both slave and free. See Parral Archives (New Mexico Highlands University and DRSW files and University of Arizona Library), AZU Film 0318, RI. 1647, 1648, 1659 D, Roll 6172 G. 18-535, Roll 6724 R. 201-20.
A good summary of the personnel and equipment that finally went north with Juan de Oñate comes from Bannon,
Borderlands Frontier
, p. 36. Juan de Vasco Velasco (Hammond and Rey,
Oñate
, vol. 2, p. 609) says there were more than five hundred in the Oñate party. The recent analysis of the makeup of Oñate's expedition by D. H. Snow (
New Mexico's First Colonists: The 1597-1600 Enlistments for New Mexico under Juan de Oñate, Adelante and Gobernador
[Hispanic Genealogical Research Center of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 1998]) is an exceedingly valuable source. See esp. pp. 1-6 for a discussion of the makeup of the expedition. Of the domestic animals taken north by Oñate, the sheep are generally considered to be the churro variety, but this is not absolutely certain.
For the march itinerary, see Hammond and Rey,
Oñate
, vol. 1, pp. 309-19. The routing of Oñate is discussed in J. Roney, "Tracing the Camino Real,"
El Camino Real del Tierra Adentro
, G. Palmer, ed. (New Mexico, Bureau of Land Management, Cultural Resources Series, no. 11, 1993), pp. 85-99, esp. the maps on pp. 88-90. Roney's comments on the Oñate route north from the Rio Carmén can be found on p. 87. For more routing information, see the testimony taken in Mexico in late July 1601 ("Copie de las informaciones, recogidas sobre el estado de la Provincia del Nuevo México," Archivo General de Indias, Seville [AGI], est. 58, caja 3, leg. 15; from a copy in the Bancroft Library, Berkeley, Calif. [cited as
Informaciones
, 1601]). A slightly edited translation of this document can be found in Hammond and Rey,
Oñate
, vol. 2, 623-69 [Valverde Investigation of 1601].
The discussion of the Concho and Suma Indians draws on C. O. Sauer,
The Distribution of Aboriginal Tribes and Languages in Northwestern Mexico
(Ibero America, vol. 5, pp. 59-64 [Concho] and 65-74 [Jumano and Suma]). Additional information comes from W. B. Griffen, "Southern Periphery: East" (
Handbook of North American Indians [HNAI]
, vol. 10,
Southwest
, A. Ortiz, ed. [Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 1983]), pp. 329-42. The archaeology of Chihuahua is covered in D. D. Brand,
The Chihuahuan Culture Area
(
New

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