Massacre (58 page)

23.
Christiane Demeulenaere-Douyère, ‘Journal de l’entrée des troupes versaillaises dans Paris’,
Bulletin de la Société d’Histoire de Paris et de l’Ile de France
108 (1981), p. 309.

24.
Marcel Cerf,
Édouard Moreau, l’âme du Comité central de la Commune
(1971), p. 207.

25.
Stewart Edwards,
The Paris Commune 1871
, p. 343.

26.
Lidsky,
Les Écrivains
, p. 66; Marforio (Louise Lacroix),
Les écharpes rouges: souvenirs de la commune
(1872), p. 96; Woodford McClellan,
Revolutionary Exiles: The Russians in the First Internationale and the Paris Commune
(London, 1979), pp. 167–8.

27.
Bronislas Wolowski,
Dombrowski et Versailles
(Geneva, 1871), pp. 140–42; Denis Arthur Bingham,
Recollections of Paris
, vol. 2 (London, 1896), p. 122; Pelletan,
La semaine de mai
, pp. 130–3.

28.
René Héron de Villefosse,
Les graves heures de la Commune
(1970), p. 253.

29.
Pelletan,
La semaine de mai
, p. 129.

30.
Augustine Blanchecotte,
Tablettes d’une femme pendant la Commune
(1872), p. 225; Lissagaray,
Les huit journées de mai
, pp. 132–33.

31.
Lidsky,
Les Écrivains
, p. 46.

32.
Gautier,
Tableaux de siège
, pp. 242–4.

33.
Henri Opper de Blowitz,
My Memoirs
(London 1903), p. 40.

34.
Lidsky,
Les écrivains,
pp. 47–8; Gullickson,
Unruly Women
, pp. 176–7. Gustave Flaubert, who had served in the National Guard during the Franco-Prussian War, now wrote to George Sand, who was hostile to the Commune, that the latter was ‘repugnant’ (Michelle Perrot, ‘George Sand: une républicaine contre la Commune’, in Claude Latta, ed.,
La Commune de 1871
, pp. 147, 154).

35.
Gullickson,
Unruly Women
, pp. 197, 205; Léonce Dupont,
Souvenirs de Versailles pendant la Commune
(1881), pp. 255, 267, 286. Gullickson shows that during the trials at Versailles that followed, the Communards’ physical appearance remained almost an obsession.

36.
Marforio,
Les Écharpes Rouges
, pp. 147–52.

37.
Gullickson,
Unruly Women
, pp. 180–3; Georges Jeanneret,
Paris pendant la Commune révolutionnaire de 1871
(1871), p. 250; Jules Bergeret,
Le 18 mars: Journal Hebdomadaire
(London, 1871), pp. 7–8.

38.
Bruhat, Dautry and Tersen,
La Commune de 1871
, p. 285; Gullickson,
Unruly Women
, p. 169; Maurice Choury,
Les damnés de la terre, 1871
(1970), p. 151; Lissagaray,
Les huit journées de mai
, pp. 132–3; Pelletan,
La semaine de mai
, pp. 351–8.

39.
Laure Godineau,
La Commune de Paris par ceux qui l’ont vécue
(2010), p. 218; Frédéric Fort,
Paris brûlé
(1871), p. 124.

40.
Becker,
Paris Under Siege
, p. 312.

41.
Georges Valance,
Thiers: bourgeois et révolutionnaire
(2007), p. 344; Lidsky,
Les Écrivains
, p. 76; Sébastien Commissaire,
Mémoires et souvenirs
, vol. 2 (1888), p. 383; Bruhat, Dautry and Tersen,
La Commune de 1871
, p. 288.

42.
Louis Énault,
Paris brûlé par la Commune
(1871), p. 266.

43.
Paul Lidsky, ed.,
Les aventures de ma vie, Henri Rochefort
(2005), p. 215; Pierre Vésinier,
History of the Commune of Paris
(1872), pp. 344–5; Élie Reclus,
La Commune au jour le jour
(2011), pp. 380–82. H. Sarrepont (Eugène Hennebert),
Guerre des Communeux de Paris: 18 mars–28 mai 1871
(1871), pp. 363–6.

11 Remembering

1.
Prosper-Olivier Lissagaray,
Les huit journées de mai derrière les barricades
(1871), p. 34.

2.
Ibid., pp. 138–9.

3.
Georges Bell,
Paris Incendié
:
Histoire de la Commune de 1871
(1872), section three, ‘Les ruines’; Anonymous [Davy],
The Insurrection in Paris
:
Related by an Englishman
(1871), pp. 118, 122–59; Robert Tombs,
The Paris Commune 1871
(London, 1999), p. 12; Jules Bergeret,
Le 18 mars: Journal Hebdomadaire
(London, 1871), pp. 14–15; Camille Pelletan,
La semaine de mai
, pp. 301, 344–50.

4.
Camille de Meaux,
Souvenirs politiques, 1871–1877
(1905), pp. 54–6.

5.
Alexis Pierron,
Mgr Darboy: Esquisses familières
(1872), pp. 111–12. The new archbishop restored Lagarde to his status as first vicar. Pius IX saluted Darboy in his
Lettre encyclique
of 4 June. The Versaillais shot Vérig at La Roquette immediately upon arrival. Various campaigns to obtain Darboy’s beatification began in the late 1880s and lasted into the late 1960s. A statue of Darboy, sculpted in 1873 by Jean-Marie Bienaimé (Bonassieux), stands in Notre Dame. Streets in the Eleventh Arrondissement were renamed for Darboy and Deguerry.

6.
Jacques-Olivier Boudon,
Monseigeur Darboy (1813–1871)
(2011), p. 146; Wickham Hoffman,
Camp, Court, and Siege: A Narrative of Personal Adventure and Observation During Two Wars, 1861–1865, 1870–71
(New York, 1877), p. 264.

7.
Fournier,
La Commune
, pp. 22–5. The Church of Notre-Dame-des Otages today stands at 81, rue Haxo.

8.
Olivier Marion, ‘La vie religieuse pendant la Commune de Paris 1871’ (unpublished master’s thesis, Paris-X Nanterre, 1981), p. 262; John Merriman,
Dynamite Club
(New York, 2009), pp. 88–9; Fournier,
La Commune
, pp. 26–7.

9.
Albert Hans,
Souvenirs d’un volontaire versaillais
(1873), pp. 213, 239–40.

10.
Hans,
Souvenirs
, pp. 213, 229–32.

11.
Henri Ameline, ed.,
Enquête parlementaire sur l’insurrection du 18 mars
, vol. 1 (Versailles, 1872), pp. 227–8; René Héron de Villefosse,
Les graves heures de la Commune
(1970), p. 249.

12.
Frédéric Chauvaud, ‘L’élision des traces, l’effacement des marques de la barricade à Paris (1830–1871)’, in Alain Corbin and J.-M. Mayeur, eds.,
La Barricade
(1997), pp. 272–79.

13.
Lissagaray,
Les huit journées de mai
, pp. 142–3.

14.
Georges Valance,
Thiers: bourgeois et révolutionnaire
(2007), p. 325; Élie Reclus,
La Commune de Paris au jour le jour
(2011), pp. 374–6, 378.

15.
William Serman,
La Commune de Paris
(1986), pp. 529–37; 8J 6e conseil de guerre, 683; E. Tersen, ‘Léo Frankel’,
Europe, revue mensuelle
, 29: 64–5 (April–May, 1951), p. 166.

16.
Louise Michel,
La Commune, Histoire et Souvenirs
(1970), pp. 328–9; Serman,
La Commune de Paris
, p. 536.

17.
Sutter-Laumann,
Histoire d’un trente sous (1870–1871)
(1891), pp. 356–7.

18.
8J 3e conseil de guerre 6, dossier 29/5 (Gustave Courbet), reports of 31 May and 1 June 1871 and interrogation of Courbet, 25 July 1871; Eugène Delessert,
Épisodes pendant la Commune, souvenirs d’un délégué de la Société de secours aux blessés militaires des armées de terre et de mer
(1872), p. 51.

19.
APP Ba 1020, for example, report of 7 July 1871.

20.
8J 3e conseil de guerre 6, dossier 29/5 (Gustave Courbet), p.v., 8, 13 and 14 June 1871.

21.
Pierre Courthion,
Courbet raconté par lui-même et par ses amis
, vol. 1 (Geneva, 1948), pp. 267–9; Gerstle Mack,
Gustave Courbet
(1951), p. 272; Jean Péridier,
La Commune et les artistes: Pottier, Courbet, Vallès, J.B. Clément
(1980), pp. 70–71.

22.
8J 3e conseil de guerre 6, dossier 29/5 (Gustave Courbet); Péridier,
La Commune
, pp. 72–5; Henri Dubief, ‘Défense de Gustave Courbet par lui-même’,
L’Actualité de l’Histoire
, 30 (January–March, 1960), pp. 32–3; Édouard Moriac,
Les conseils de guerre de Versailles
(1871), pp. 95–100, 222–3; Robert Boudry, ‘Courbet et la fédération des
artistes’,
Europe
, 29: 64–5, April–May 1951, p. 126; (Jules) Castagnary,
Gustave Courbet et la Colonne Vendôme: Plaidoyer pour un ami mort
(1883), pp. 2, 77–83. Courbet was fined 323,091 francs for the rebuilding of the column and 6,850 francs for the trial.

23.
L. Bigot,
Dossier d’un condamné à mort
.
Procès de Gustave Maroteau
(1871), p. 163.

24.
Gay Gullickson,
Unruly Women of Paris
(1996), pp. 206–9; Susanna Barrows,
Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-Century France
(New Haven, 1981). Three women, Élisabeth Rétiffe, Joséphine Marchais and Léotine Suétens, were condemned to death, despite a lack of evidence that they had set fire to anything, but they were subsequently spared.

25.
8J 6 dossier 135 Louise Michel, interrogation 28 June 1871; Louise Michel, Lowry Bullitt and Elizabeth Ellington Gunter,
The Red Virgin: Memoirs of Louise Michel
(Alabama, 1981), pp. 85–6; Gullickson,
Unruly Women
, pp. 210–14; Kathleen Jones and Françoise Vergès, ‘“Aux citoyennes!”: Women, Politics, and the Paris Commune of 1871’,
History of European Ideas
, 13 (1991), p. 725.

26.
Louis-Nathaniel Rossel,
Rossel’s Posthumous Papers
(London, 1872), p. 203; Jules Bourelly (Général),
Le ministère de la Guerre sous la Commune
(n.d), p. 154; Ly 137; Michel, Bullitt and Gunter,
The Red Virgin
, pp. 77–9; 8J 3e conseil de guerre 6 dossier 29/8 Théophile Ferré, interrogation 16 July 1871; 8J 6 dossier 554; Pelletan,
La semaine de mai
, pp. 154–5.

27.
Louis Énault,
Paris brûlé par la Commune
(1871), p. 25; Amerline, vol. 1, pp. 127, 243, 264; J.M. Roberts, ‘La Commune considérée par la droite, dimensions d’une mythologie’,
Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine
, XIX (April–June 1972), pp. 200–1. Alain Corbin suggests ‘it is as if no regime could establish itself firmly until it had proved its capacity to bathe in the blood of the monster: the angry populace, the frenzied mob’ (
Village of Cannibals: Rage and Murder in France, 1870
, Cambridge, MA, 1992), p. 98.

28.
Éric Fournier,
La Commune n’est pas morte: Les usages politiques du presse de 1871 à nos jours
(2013), pp. 16–17, 30; François Bournand,
Le clergé pendant la Commune
(1892), p. 10.

29.
Robert Tombs,
The War Against Paris 1871
(Cambridge, 1981), pp. 191–2; Tristan Rémy,
La Commune à Montmartre: 23 mai 1871
(1970), p. 125. According to another report, the Versaillais forces claimed to have arrested 38,578 people, including 1,054 women and 615 boys and girls under the age of sixteen. Of these, about 20,000 were released without charge and more than 10,000 were condemned to a variety of penalties. Others ended up in well-guarded prison forts in the provinces (Valance,
Thiers
, pp. 344–5; Général Appert, ‘Rapport d’ensemble … sur les opérations de la justice militaire relatives à l’insurrection de 1871’,
Annales de l’Assemblée nationale
, 43 (1875); Stewart Edwards,
The Paris Commune 1871
, pp. 347–8). By early 1875, the cases of 50,559 prisoners had been heard. Twenty-two courts-martial tried 10,448 people, bringing 13,440 condemnations of which 3,313
par contumace
between 1871 and 1874; 270 were condemned to death and 26 men were executed; 410 Communards (20 women) were sentenced to
travaux forces
; 3,989 (16 women) were deported, and 1,269 were sent to prison (Gérard Milhaud, ‘De la Calomnie à l’Histoire’,
Europe
, 48 (November–December 1970), pp. 42–56). They were not the ‘dangerous classes’ imagined by elites; yet compared to other workers, they were poorer and, by virtue of the transient nature of their work, arguably less integrated into the city, younger and less likely to be married than other workers, and more likely to be ‘illegitimate’ (
enfants naturels
) and to be illiterate; 21 per cent had had some sort of encounter with the law but the vast majority of these had involved only quite minor judicial proceedings. Of those condemned, 64.2 per cent were aged 21–40; 25.6 per cent 41–60. Those aged 21–25 were more likely to be deported. Of those arrested, 24.5 per cent were born in the
département
of the Seine (that of Paris). The Seine led the way with 8,938 facing charges, followed by the neighbouring Seine-et-Oise with 1,267. Among the 1,725 foreigners arrested at the end of the Commune, Belgians led the way with 737,
followed by 215 Italians, 201 Swiss, 154 Dutch and 110 Poles (Appert, ‘Rapport d’ensemble’, p. 117). The Musée d’Art et d’Histoire in Saint-Denis gives a total of 34,952 arrests, including 819 women and 538 children, of whom 2,455 were acquitted with 22,727 cases of charges dropped; 93 people were condemned to death, with 23 executed; 251 were sentenced to hard labour for specific terms or for life; 3,417 were deported to New Caledonia, 1,247 were sentenced to life in prison, and 3,359 received shorter prison terms; 3,313 were condemned in absentia.