Modern Times: The World From the Twenties to the Nineties (179 page)

Brezhnev, Leonid, 302, 676–7, 678, 682, 726, 754

Britain: and First World War, 20–2, 28, 30–1; aim of self-determination, 21–2, 41–7, 508–10; and idea of League of Nations, 30–1, inflation, 35; violence, 38; war gains, 43—4; disintegration of Empire, 43, 45, 346–7, 468–70; failing alliance with France, 138–9, 147, 381–2; sparse investment in colonies, 155, 156; and colonial labour system, 158; imperial currency system, 161; ‘lost generation’ and war literature, 162–3; agricultural and industrial decay, 163–4, 170; economy, 164, 439, 600–4; intellectual life, 166–72, 347–9; concern over defence and security, 172–5; disarmament, 174, 346; economic policies, 234–7; cut in air and naval power, 309–12, 320, 321; sanctions policy, 320–1; left-wing influence, 347–8; pacifism, 483–50; fear of Communism, 354; acceptance of war as inevitable, 356–7; and Second World War, 367–9, 385–6, 395–6, 399–400, 402–4, 408; assistance to Russia, 385–6; code-breaking, 399–400; and mass bombing, 402–4; nuclear research, 408, 467–8; and war-crimes, 430–1; no longer a world power, 439, 493, 599; and strategic arms race, 467–8; and collective security, 467, 468; and Middle East, 480–4, 490–3; decolonization, 508–10; and EEC, 598–9, 600; economic structural weakness, 600–1; trade union dominance, 601–3; church attendance, 704; Japanese investment in, 732–3; industrial disputes, 740–4; expanding economy in the 1980s, 744–5; Labour Party, 746; Cruise missiles, 753

British Airways, 744

British Steel, 744

British Telecom, 744

Brittain, Vera, 350

Britton, Nan, 218

Broch, Hermann, 117

Brockdorff-Rantzau, Count von, 26–7

Brooke, Sir Alan, 433

Brooke, Rupert, 19, 162

Brooks, Van Wyck, 206, 207, 252

Bruce, David, 463

Brüning, Heinrich, 281, 282, 295

Bryan, William Jennings, 208, 209

Buch, Major Walter, 293

Buchenwald, 418

Bukharin, Nikolai, 262, 263, 265–6, 272, 301, 303, 307

Bulganin, Nikolai, 675

Bulgaria, 373, 374, 415, 434, 437, 727, 760, 762

Bullitt, William, 27

Bund Wehrwolf
, 124

Bunds
, 124, 125

Bürgerblock
, 605

Burgess, Guy, 172, 247

Burma, 154, 162, 573, 727, 736

Burundi, 531, 541

Bury.J.B., 13

Busch, Fritz, 112

Bush, President George, 752, 769, 770, 773

bushido, 180, 181, 184, 186

Büssche, Albert, 576

Butler, R.A., 492

Butler, General Smedling, 210

Byas, Hugh, 185, 318

Byrnes, James, 437

Bywater, Hector, 393

Caballero, Francino Largo, 322–3, 325, 333, 334

Cachin, Marcel, 337

Caillaux, Joseph, 16

calculators, 780

Calcutta, 573–4

Caldwell, Erskine, 252

Callaghan, James, 536

Calvin, Jean, 51, 53

Cambodia, 631, 633, 654–7

Camelots du Roi, Les
, 146

Cameroon, 507, 541, 542

Camp David, 708

Campbell, W.W., 2

camps, concentration/death/labour: Russia, 91–2, 261, 274–5, 304–5; German, 288–9, 304, 414–22

camps, prisoner-of-war: Japanese, 427–8; German, 428

Camus, Albert, 143, 499, 504, 576, 577

Canada, 175, 189

Capone, Al, 210, 265

car production, 142, 223, 225, 238, 731–2, 732–3

Carlists, 331

‘Carlos’ (assassin), 688

Carney, Admiral, 683

Carrillo, Santiago, 325

Carson, Sir Edward, 46

Carson, Rachel, 661

Carter, Jimmy, 673–4, 697, 708, 713, 748

Casablanca Conference (1943), 411

Casablanca Group, 540

Castro, Fidel 620–8, 684, 685

Catholic Church, 98, 701–4, 706; Mussolini’s concordat with, 101, 579; and French schools, 143; and nationalism 145; Spanish Republican hatred of, 326–7; in Poland, 702, 703; and Third

World, 703–4

Ceausescu, Nicolae, 760–2

Cecil, Lord Robert, 31, 41, 172, 310, 350

CEDA
(Confederación Espanõla de Derechas Autónomas), 324

Central African Republic, 517, 532, 541

Chad, 507, 541, 542, 707, 727

Chadwick, Sir James, 406

Chamberlain, Austen, 28, 29, 139, 147

Chamberlain, B. Hall, 181

Chamberlain, Houston Stewart, 120

Chamberlain, Joseph, 152

Chamberlaink, Neville, 131, 321, 353, 354, 357, 368

Chamberlain, W.H., 70

Chambers, Whittaker, 458

Chamson, André, 337

Chanak crisis (1922), 138

Chang Chun-chiao, 564

Chang Kuo Tao, 315

Chang Tso-lin, Marshal, 195

Chang Tsung-chang, Marshal, 195

Chantiers de la Jeunesse
, 588

Chaplin, Charlie, 186

Charles, Emperor of Austria, 19

Chartier, Emile, 143

Chase, Stuart, 248, 252, 260

Cheka (All-Russian Extraodinary Commission), 67–71, 78, 80, 91

Ch’en Tu-hsiu, 194

Chernenko, Konstantin, 755

Chernobyl, 756

Cherwell, Lord, 405

Chessman, Caryl, 643

Chiang Ching (wife of Mao Tse-tung), 552– 4, 555, 558–9, 561, 563–5

Chiang Ching-kuo, General, 446

Chiang Kai-shek, 193–6, 199, 201, 315–16, 443–7

Chibas, Eduardo, 620

Chicago, 38, 247

Chihani, Bachir, 497

Childs, Marquis, 604

Chile, 736–9

China: contrast with Japan, 177–8; Japanese attack and demands on, 187, 190, 201–2; decaying imperial government, 190–1; Republic, 191–2; war-lord era, 192, 195, 196–202, 445; search for foreign aid, 193; Communist aid and infiltration, 194–6, 315–16; rival parties and leaders, 194–7; radical reform by force, 196–202; recruitment of peasants, 198–9; banditry and slaughter, 200–1; war with Japan, 315–18, 388; victim of Yalta, 430; American policy on, 443, 444, 446, 448; renewed civil war, 444–8; economy, 445–6, 550, 566; land reform, 447, 548, 549; despotic regime, 447, 544–67; nuclear power, 451, 686; visitors’ uncritical praise of, 544–5; social and mental engineering, 548–50, 552, 555–62; ‘hundred flowers’ campaign, 549; Great Leap to Communism, 550–2; Cultural Revolution, 552, 555–62, 565, 566; student violence, 556, 557–61; risk of civil war, 560; leadership conflict and ‘Gang of Four’, 564—5; ‘new realism’, 566–7; and Vietnam, 631–2; dispute with Russia, 648, 686; new American policy on, 648; population, 723–4; food production, 725; repressive policies, 758–9 chlorofluorocarbons, 774, 775

Choctow, 200

Chomsky, Noam, 695

Chou En-lai, 315, 316, 476, 477, 548, 550, 558, 562, 563

Christian Democrats: Italian, 579; German (CDU), 581, 582, 583

Chu Yu-pu, 195

Church of England, 164–5

Churchill, Winston, 27, 271, 349, 418, 463, 467, 533, 610; on destructive capacity of ‘educated states’, 13–14, 370, 402; on Amritsar, 46; on Lenin, 49; attitude to Bolsheviks, 73–4, 75; return to gold standard, 164; and naval spending, 174; on impossibility of war with Japan, 174, 175, 176; share speculation, 230–1; unheeded warnings on Hitler, 346; campaign against India Bill, 347, 572; on Munich, 355; as wartime leader, 367, 368–71; and terror-bombing, 369–70, 402–3, 404; and Russia, 372, 373, 384–6; and ‘unconditional surrender’, 411; and use of atomic bomb, 425; at Yalta, 430, 466; anxiety over Russia, 433–5, 437–8, 466; at Teheran, 433; and China, 443; safeguard to Tito, 449; Churchill
(contd)
agrees to Indian independence, 470, 473; and Palestine, 482, 488; call for United States of Europe, 599

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), 463, 491, 621, 631, 634, 650, 653

Ciano, Count, 339, 410, 412

Cienfuegos, Camilo, 623

civil rights, 644–6, 662–3

Civil Service Law (Germany, 1933), 290

civilization: versus culture, 111–12, 115–16, 121–2, 125–6, 136, 209; French attitude to, 142–3, 594

Clark-Kerr, Sir Archibald, 434

Claudel, Paul, 327

Clay, General Lucius, 441

Clean Air Act (US, 1965), 661

Clean Water Restoration Act (US, 1966), 661

Clemenceau, Georges, 16, 21, 24, 26–7, 32, 149

Clement, Rudolf, 335

elemental, Etienne, 142, 590

Clifford, Clark, 637

coal industry, in Britain, 740–3

Coal-Mine Health and Safety Act (US, 1969), 662

Cockburn, Claud, 345

Cockcroft, Sir John, 406, 407

code-breaking, 386, 397, 398–400

Codovilla, Vittorio, 325

Colby, Bainbridge, 33

Cold War, 435, 437–8, 440–3, 452, 458, 464, 485, 489, 539, 582, 614, 632, 685, 757, 768

Cole, G.D.H., 348

collective security, 349, 351, 467, 468, 613, 671–2

collectivization, 697; China, 548, 549; Russia, 92–3, 261, 266, 270–1, 524; Tanzania, 530; decline of, 698; in agriculture, 724–8

Collins, Canon L. John, 404

Cologne, 580, 581

Colonial Sterling Exchange Standard, 161

colonialism 148–62, 506; administration, 155–6, 513; and economy, 151–3, 154, 155, 514, 567; ephemeral impact of, 513; false theories of, 512–14; ‘exploitation’, 157; forced labour, 158–9; industry, 156–7; as investment, 152–3, 154, 155; purpose of, 151–6; racial basis for land apportionment, 158, 159–60; and social engineering, 519–24; visual aspect of, 160–1; British, 159, 161–2; French, 148– 51, 154, 495, 601; Nazi, 343, 380–1; population and, 722, 723

Colossus electronic computer, 400

Colour Bar Act (South Africa, 1926), 521

Comecon, 727

Cominform, 448, 449

Comintern, 102, 323, 336, 337

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), 592, 600

Communism: attainment believed possible by Khrushchev, 675; British fear of, 354; Chinese Great Leap towards, 550–1; espionage and subversion, 458–60; and national liberation wars, 615; South African suppression of, 523; and South-East Asia, 630–3, 636–7, 654–7; and totalitarianism, 277, 354, 630–3, 675, 677–9; destruction of, in Eastern Europe, 702, 757–8, 759–63

Communist Party of the Soviet Union, 52–3; supremacy of, 80–3, 675, 679, 682–3; bureaucracy, 81, 83–4; crushing of opposition, 81–2; democracy stifled in, 84; rank-and-file acclimatization to violence, 272; purges of, 299–308, 334; attempt to make more democratic, 675; Central Committee, 82–3, 84, 87, 262; 266, 273; Council of Labour and Defence, 81; Council of People’s Commissars, 81; Politburo, 63, 83, 84, 87, 89, 262, 265

Communist Party, American, 213, 250, 252

Communist Party, British, 348

Communist Party, Chinese, 193, 194–6, 201, 315–17, 444, 446, 551–2, 561, 563, 566

Communist Party, Cuban, 619, 620, 623

Communist Party, French, 361, 588–9, 592

Communist Party, German, 66, 94–5, 108, 116, 135, 278, 281, 282, 283, 286

Communist Party, Indonesian (PKI), 479–80

Communist Party, Italian, 57, 98,
99
, 579

Communist Party, Spanish, 322, 325, 327, 333–9

Conant, James, 429

‘concordance democracy’, 605

Congo, 154, 158, 514–17, 518, 519, 531, 541, 685

Congress of Soviets, 63

Connelly, Marc, 227

Connolly, Cyril, 169

Conrad, Joseph, 12–13, 86

Conservative Party, British, 347, 368, 369, 602, 603

conspiracy theory, 144, 145, 146, 152

Constituent Assembly (Russia), 64, 71–2

constitution-making: in decolonization, 508–9; France (Fourth Republic), 589–90, 595; Greece, 611; Japan, 730–1; Spain, 609–10; Weimar Republic, 110–11; West Germany, 583

constitutionalism, new African states’ lapse from, 513, 517, 534

consumer goods, 732

‘containment’ policy, 447–8, 465, 489

Coolidge, Calvin, 35, 214, 219–21, 228–9, 241, 258, 585

COPEC (the Conference on Christian Politics, Economics and Citizenship), 165

Copland, Aaron, 227

corporate state, growth of, 122, 126–7

corruption: Africa, 518; America, 210–12, 217–18, 650–3; Cuba, 619–20; India, 570–1; Japan, 181

Cortada, Roldan, 334, 335

cosmology, 698–9

Cotonou, 517

Coutrot, Jean, 587

Cowley, Malcolm, 252

Cox, Professor Archibald, 643

Craigie, Sir Robert, 390

Cramer, Charles, 217

Credit Anstalt, 246, 670

credit-inflation, 233, 240, 244, 256–8

Crick, Francis, 731

Cripps, Sir Stafford, 404

Croce, Benedetto,
99, 306

Croix de Feu, 146

Croly, Herbert, 16

Crowe, Sir Eyre, 21, 41, 147

Cruise missiles, 753

Cuba, 539; US right of intervention, 616, 619, 621–2, 624, 626–8; economy, 618– 19, 621, 628, 684; corruption, 619–20; revolutionary government, 621–2; dictatorship, 622–3; abortive invasion of, 624; move to Soviet, 623–4, 625, 628, 684–5; missile crisis, 625–8; as Soviet satellite-mercenary, 684–5

Culbertson, Ely, 247

Culman, Henri, 587

Cultural revolution (China), 545, 552, 555– 62, 565, 566

culture, 8–10; versus civilization, 10–12, 115–16, 121–2, 125–6, 209; American, 206–9, 215, 225–7; French, 143; Weimar German, 112–17

currency control, 233, 235–8

currency market, 659–60, 663–5

Curzon, Lord, 42, 43, 138, 157, 166, 173, 193, 219

Cyprus, 21

Czechoslovakia: minorities, 39–40; German occupation, 338, 353–5, 356; murdered Jews from, 415; as Soviet satellite, 440, 448; IRA supplied from, 715; end of Communist rule in, 760, 763

Czestochowa, 703

D’Abernon, Lord, 139

Dachau, 288, 304, 418

Dada, 9

Daddah, Ould, 541

Dahomey, 517

Dai Nihon Kokusuikai, 184

Dakar, 156

Dako, David, 532

Daladier, Edouard, 353, 354, 365, 592

Dalton, Hugh, 440, 466

Dandieu, Andre, 143

D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 95, 96, 99

Danquah, J.B., 511, 512

Darwin, Charles, 5, 117, 120, 778

Darwinism, 5, 130, 208, 777–8

Daud, Mohammed, 708

Daudet, Léon, 145

Daugherty, Harry, 217, 218

David, Eduard, 108

Davidson, J.C.C., 469

Davies, Joseph E., 276, 307, 345, 436

Davis, John W., 214

Dawes, Charles, 216