Muslim Fortresses in the Levant: Between Crusaders and Mongols (121 page)

24 Kennedy, C
astles,
98; Ellenblum, M
odern Histories,
189; Chevedden, P. E., “Fortifications and the development of defensive planning during the Crusader period,” in
The Circle o War in the Middle Ages
, eds. D. J. Kagay and L. J. A. Villalon (Woodbridge, UK, 1999), 34. The Hungarian scholar Erik Fügedi reached a very different conclusion while researching fortresses of the first half of the thirteenth century in Hungary. According to Fugedi: “Innovations in castle building during the thirteenth century were not triggered by advances in military technology, but rather by social development, enhanced by the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241.” Fügedi, E.,
Castles and Society in Medieval Hungary (1000–1437)
(Budapest, 1986), 42.

25 Marshall, C. J.,
Warfare in the Latin East, 1192–1291
(Cambridge, 1996), 93. For a totally different opinion, emphasizing the importance of the superiority of the Frankish field army during the 12th century see Ellenblum,
Modern Histories
, ch. 10, especially 161–4.

26 On the economic situation of the Ayyubid sultanate during the first two decades after
al-Dīn’s death, see the short paragraph in Humphreys, R. S.,
From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus 1193–126
(Albany, 1977), 132. According to Ehrenkreutz, the financial condition of Egypt in the mid-twelfth century, based on numismatic studies, archaeological finds and historical sources, was far from one of bankruptcy. Ehrenkreutz, A.,
Saladin
(New York, 1972), 17–18, 102–3.

27 Ayalon, D., “Studies in the structure of the Mamluk army,”
BSOAS
15 (1953): 448–76; Humphreys, R. S., “The emergence of the Mamluk army,”
SI
46 (1977): 148–52; Humphreys,
Saladin
, 304; Lev, Y.,
Saladin in Egypt
(Leiden, Boston and Cologne, 1999), 141–58.

28 The development of Karak and Safad into
mamlakas
will be noted in Chapter 4.

29
al-Dīn al-Isfahanī,
bait al-maqdis
(Beirut, 2003), 62;
Ibn al-Jawzī,
Mir’āt al-zamān fī ta’rīkh
(Hyderabad, 1952), vol. 8, pt. 1, 394.

30 Chevedden, “Development,” 36–8. The subject has been discussed y Chevedden in several articles: Chevedden, P. E., “Artillery in late antiquity,” in
The Medieval City under Siege
, eds. I. Corfis and M. Wolfe (Woodbridge, 1995), 131–73; ibid., “The tebuchet: recent reconstructions and computer simulations reveal the operating principles of the most powerful weapon of its time,”
Scientific America
(1995, July): 80–6; Michaudel, “Islamic military architecture,” 106, 109, 112. Kennedy seems to support this idea although he is slightly cautious: Kennedy,
Castles
, 9. The same attitude is adopted y Yovitchitch in his article: “The Tower of Aybak in
Castle: an example of the spread of an architectural concept in early thirteenth century Ayyubid fortifications,” in
Military Architecture in Greater Syria
, ed. H. Kennedy (Leiden and Boston, 2006), 225–42. See especially p. 236.

31 Chevedden, “Artillery,” 131–73; ibid., “The trebuchet,” 66–71; ibid., “Development,” 36–8.

32 Ellenblum,
Modern Histories
, 187–98.

33 Ehrenkreutz,
Saladin
, 36–7, 42–3, 48.

34 Riley-Smith, J.,
The Crusades: A Short Histor
(London, 1990), 84; Lev,
Saladin
, 163.

35 Lev,
Saladin
, 163.

36 Marshall,
Warfare
, 256.

37 Ibid., ch. 6, especially 255–6; Hillenbrand,
Crusades
, 467.

38 Ibn al-Athīr,
al-Dīn,
Al-Kāmil fī al-Ta’rīkh,
ed. C. J. Tornberg (Beirut, 1966), vol. 12, 322.

39 Ibid., vol. 12, 323–6; Prawer, J.,
A History of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,
2nd edn (Jerusalem, 1963), vol. 2, 142 (Hebrew).

40 Ibn al-Furāt,
Ayyubids, Mamlukes and Crusaders: Selections from the Tā’rīkh al-duwal wa’l-mulūk of Ibn al-Furāt,
ed. and trans. U. and M. C. Lyons; introduction and notes J. S. C. Riley-Smith (Cambridge, 1971), 26–8. Cited in Ellenblum,
Modern Histories
, n. 47, pp. 136, 137.

41 Ellenblum,
Modern Histories
, ch. 9.

42 Dawkins, R. and Krebs, J. R., “Arms races between and within species,”
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
. Ser. B 205 (1979): 492.

43 Dawkins and Krebs, “Arms races,” 493.

44 Ibid., 489.

45 Marshall, C. J., “The French regiment in the Latin East, 1254–91,”
Journal of Medieval History
15 (1989): 301–7.

46 Ellenblum, “
,” 103–12.

47 Johns, “
,” 23. Johns refers at length to the Banū ‘Awf and their growing strength in the region, but suggests that one of the main reasons for the construction was the Frankish forts south of
– Karak and Shawbak.