Resurrecting Pompeii (60 page)

Counting the Dead: The Epidemiology of Skeletal Populations
. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1994, 98; and White and Folkens, 2005, op. cit, 331–32. 192 Bisel and Bisel, 2002, op. cit., 460–73; Capasso 2001 reconstructions of occupation and lifestyle indicators are in section that deals with individual skeletons, which occupies the major part of the book. Capasso, 2001, op. cit.
193 Erc 13 and Erc 98. Bisel and Bisel, 2002, op. cit., 466–67.
194 Erc 28 Bisel and Bisel, 2002, op. cit., 467.
195 Capasso, 2001, op. cit., 1042.
196 See, for example, Capasso
et al
., 1999, op. cit., 132–42.
197 Capasso, 2001, op. cit., 172–83; Ercolano 14.
198 Capasso, 2001, op. cit., 181, Figs. 237 and 238.

1 Strabo,
The Geography
. Translated by H.R. Jones.
Loeb Classical Library
. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988, V, IV, 8; Pliny the Elder, ‘Natural Histories’, in Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1938/ 1962, 3.60–62.

2 A.E. Cooley and M.G.L. Cooley,
Pompeii: A Sourcebook
. London: Routledge, 2004, 17.
3 M. Cipollaro
et al
., ‘Ancient DNA in human bone remains from Pompeii archaeological site’,
Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications
, Vol. 247, No. 3, 1998, 901–4; M. Cipollaro
et al
., ‘Histological analysis and ancient DNA amplification of human bone remains found in Caius Iulius Polybius House in Pompeii’,
Croatian Medical Journal
, Vol. 40, No. 3, 1999, 392–97; R.M. Costantini and L. Capasso, ‘Sulla Presenza di DNA endogeno nei resti scheletri dei fuggiaschi di Ercolano’,in
I Fuggiaschi di Ercolano: Paleobiologia delle Vittime dell
’
Eruzione Vesuviana del 79 d.C., Appendix 3
, ed. L. Capasso. Rome: ‘L’Erma’ di Bretschneider, 2001, 1069–74; G. Geraci
et al
., ‘Le analisi paleogenetiche’,in
Vesuvio 79
AD
: Vita e Morte ad Ercolano
, eds P.P. Petrone and F. Fedele. Naples: Fredericiana Editrice Universitaria, 2002, 85–88; G. Di Bernardo
et al
., ‘Analisi dei reperti ossei della casa grado di conservazione ed amplificazione del DNA antico’,in
La Casa di Giulio Polibio: Studi Interdisciplinari
, ed. A. Ciarallo and E. De Carolis. Pompei: Centro Studi arti Figurative, Università di Tokio, 2001, 111–18. Note that there has been some success with DNA analysis of other mammalian species at Pompeii; see, for example, J.F. Bailey
et al
., ‘Monkey business in Pompeii: Unique find of a juvenile Barbary Macaque skeleton in Pompeii identified using osteology and ancient DNA techniques’,
Molecular Biology and Evolution
, Vol. 16 1999, 1410–14; M. Sica
et al
., ‘Analysis of five ancient equine skeletons by mitochondrial DNA sequencing’,
Ancient Biomolecules
, Vol. 4, No. 4, 2002, 179–84.
4 S.C. Bisel and J.F. Bisel, ‘Health and nutrition at Herculaneum: An examination of human skeletal remains’,in
The Natural History of Pompeii
, ed. W.F. Jashemski and F.G. Meyer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, 451–75; L. Capasso,
I Fuggiaschi di Ercolano: Paleobiologia delle Vittime dell
’
Eruzione Vesuviana del 79 d.C
. Roma: ‘L’Erma’ di Bretschneider, 2001, 927–33; C. D’Amore, ‘Primi risultati degli studi sull’antropologia Pompeiana del 79 d.C.’,in
La Regione Sotterrata dal Vesuvio: Studi e Prospettive, Atti del Convegno Internazionale 11
–
15 Novembre 1979
. Napoli: Università degli Studi, 1982, 927– 43; G. Nicolucci, ‘Crania Pompeiana: Descrizione de’ crani umani rinvenuti fra le ruine dell’ antica Pompei’,
Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche,
Vol. 9, No. 10, 1882, 1–26.
5 See Chapter 3 for a discussion of why female skulls were traditionally excluded from population studies based on cranial measurements.
6 S.C. Bisel, ‘The human skeletons of Herculaneum’,
International Journal of Anthropology
, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1991, 4; Bisel and Bisel, 2002, op. cit., 454 –55; W.W. Howells, ‘The early Christian Irish: The skeletons at Gallen Priory’,
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy
, Vol. 46 (Section C) 1941, 103–219; W.W. Howells,
Skull Shapes and the Map: Craniometric Analyses in the Dispersion of Modern Homo
. Vol. 79, Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1989, 91.
7 Bisel, 1991, op. cit., 1–20; W.W. Howells, ‘Cranial Variation in Man: A Study by Multivariate Analysis of Patterns of Difference among Recent Populations’. Vol. 67, Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1973; Bisel and Bisel, 2002, op. cit., 454 –55; Howells, 1989, op. cit.; E. Lazer, ‘Human Skeletal Remains in Pompeii: Vols. I and II.’ Unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Anatomy and Histology. Sydney: University of Sydney, 1995, 269–77; Nicolucci, 1882, op. cit. Note that because the Pompeian data set was not complete and the data sets of Nicolucci and Bisel did not contain all the measurements used by Howells, 1973, op. cit., Howells, 1989, op. cit., it was decided that the use of unpaired t–tests of the means for comparable measurements would be more appropriate than principal components analysis.
8 A.C. Berry and R.J. Berry, ‘Epigenetic variation in the human cranium’,
Journal of Anatomy
, Vol. 101 1967, 362–63; D.R. Brothwell (Institute of Archaeology, University College, London) to E. Lazer 1988, personal communication; T. Hanihara
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., ‘Characterization of biological diversity through analysis of discrete cranial traits’,
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
, Vol. 121, No. 3, 2003, 247, 249; N.S. Ossenberg, ‘The influence of artificial cranial deformation on discontinuous morphological traits’,
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
, Vol. 33, 1970, 357; C. Pardoe, ‘Prehistoric Human Morphological Variation in Australia’, unpublished PhD thesis. Canberra: Australian National University, 1984, 14–20; S.R. Saunders, ‘Nonmetric skeletal variation’,in
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, eds. M.Y. Iscan and K.A.R. Kennedy. New York: Alan R. Liss, 1989, 103–6.
9 These included metopic suture, metopic fissure, supranasal suture, frontal grooves, trochlear spine, infraorbital suture, condylar facet, coronal ossicle, ossicle at bregma, sagittal ossicle, ossicle at lambda, lambdoid ossicles, ossicle at asterion, occipito-mastoid ossicles, inca bone, sutura mendosam pars incoidea, anterior ethmoid foramen, posterior ethmoid foramen, parietal foramina, occipital foramen, condylar canal, hypoglossal canal, infraorbital foramen, highest nuchal line, precondylar tubercle, palatine torus and auditory torus Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 227–313.
10 G. Hauser and G.F. de Stefano,
Epigenetic Variants of the Human Skull
. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart, 1989.
11 G.F. De Stefano
et al
., ‘Reflections on interobserver differences in scoring non–metric cranial traits (with practical examples)’,
Journal of Human Evolution
, Vol. 13, 1984, 349– 55; E. Gualdi-Russo
et al
., ‘Scoring of nonmetric cranial traits: A methodological approach’,
Journal of Anatomy
, Vol. 195, No. 4, 1999, 543–50; F.W. Rösing, ‘Discreta of the human skeleton: A critical review’,
Journal of Human Evolution
, Vol. 13, 1984, 319– 23; Saunders, 1989, op. cit., 102.
12 Capasso, 2001, op. cit., 981–97; Nicolucci, 1882, op. cit., 10.
13 See for example, Capasso, 2001, op. cit., 983–84.
14 Capasso, 2001, op. cit., 76, 981; Hauser and De Stefano, 1989, op. cit. 15 V. Higgins, ‘A model for assessing health patterns from skeletal remains’,in
Burial Archaeology: Current Research, Methods and Developments
, ed. C.A. Roberts, F. Lee and J. Bintliff, 211. Oxford: BAR, 1989, 175–76; V. Higgins, ‘Rural Agricultural Communities of the Late Roman and Early Medieval Periods Including a Study of Two Skeletal Groups from San Vincenzo al Volturno’, unpublished PhD thesis (Sheffield: University of Sheffield 1990); Higgins, 1989–90, op. cit.
16 M. Rubini
et al
., ‘Original research article biological divergence and equality during the first millennium BC in human populations of Central Italy’,
American Journal of Human Biology
, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2007, 120.
17 L. Bondioli
et al
., ‘Familial segregation in the Iron-Age community of Alfedena, Abruzzo, Italy, based on osteo-dental trait analysis’,
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
, Vol. 71, No. 4, 1986, 393–400; E. Bruner
et al
., ‘Endocranial traits. Prevalence and distribution in a recent human population’,
European Journal of Anatomy
, Vol. 7, No. 1, 2003, 23– 33; A. Coppa
et al
., ‘Dental anthropology of Central-Southern, Iron Age Italy: The evidence of metric versus nonmetric traits’,
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
, Vol. 107, No. 4, 1998, 371–86; Gualdi-Russo
et al
., 1999, op. cit., M. Rubini, ‘Biological homogeneity and familial segregation in the Iron Age population of Alfedena (Abruzzo, Italy), based on cranial discrete traits analysis’,
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology
, Vol. 6, No. 5, 1996: 454–62; M. Rubini
et al
., ‘Etruscan Biology: The Tarquinian population seventh to second century
BC
(Southern Etruria, Italy)’,
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology
, Vol. 7, No. 3, 1997, 202–11; M. Rubini
et al
., ‘The population of East Sicily during the second and first millennium BC: The problem of the Greek colonies’,
International Journal of Osteoarchaeology,
Vol. 9, No. 1, 1999, 8–17.
18 Brothwell, 1981, op. cit., 92; S. Eggen
et al
., ‘Variation in torus palatinus prevalence in Norway’,
European Journal of Oral Sciences,
Vol. 102, No. 1, 1994, 54–59; Hauser and De Stefano, 1989, op. cit.; C.M. Halffman
et al
., ‘Palatine torus in the Greenlandic Norse’,
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
, Vol. 88, No. 2, 1992, 145–61; C.M. Halffman and J.D. Irish. ‘Palatine torus in the pre-conquest inhabitants of the Canary Islands’,
Homo: Journal of Comparative Human Biology
, Vol. 55, No. 1–2, 2004, 101–11; T. Hanihara and H. Ishida. ‘Os incae: Variation in frequency in major human population groups’,
Journal of Anatomy
, Vol. 198, No. 2, 2001a, 137–52; T. Hanihara and H. Ishida. ‘Frequency variations of discrete cranial traits in major human populations. I. Supernumerary ossicle variations’,
Journal of Anatomy
,Vol.198,No.6,2001b,689–706; Hanihara
et al
., 2003, op. cit., 241–51; J. Skrzat
et al
., ‘The morphological appearance of the palatine torus in the Cracovian skulls (XV–XVIII century)’,
Folia Morphol
, Vol. 62, No. 3, 2003, 183–86.
19 Hauser and De Stefano, 1989, op. cit., 17.
20 Parametric tests, which assume normally distributed samples, were not used because these non-metric data do not tend to follow such distributions. Instead, non-parametric tests were applied. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients were calculated to identify side or intertrait association. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to discern relationships between sex and specific traits. Spearman’s rank correlation is based on ranks rather than raw scores and can be used to detect non-linear correlations, Stevens 1987: p. 100. The Mann–Whitney U test was designed to test for difference between the means of two independent samples. This test can be used to compare samples of unequal sizes (G. Stevens,
Statistics Course Notes
. Australia: Faculty of Architecture, University of Sydney, 1987, 127). As discussed in Chapter 6, sex determination was based on the sex index generated from the observations of features considered diagnostic on the skull.
21 Ossenberg, 1970, op. cit., 362–63.
22 Brothwell, 1981, op. cit., 95; L. Capasso
et al
.,
Atlas of Occupational Markers on Human Remains
, Journal of Paleontology: Monographic Publication 3. Teramo: Journal of Paleontology & Edigrafital, 1999, 16; Capasso
et al
., 1999, 16; M.Y. El-Najjar and K.R. McWilliams.
Forensic Anthropology: The Structure, Morphology and Variation of Human Bone and Dentition
. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1978, 143–44; Hauser and De Stefano, 1989, op. cit., 17, 176–77; Halffman
et al
., 1992, op. cit., 145–61; C.M. Halffman and J.D. Irish, ‘Palatine torus in the pre-conquest inhabitants of the Canary Islands’,
Homo: Journal of Comparative Human Biology,
Vol. 55, No. 1–2, 2004, 101–11; D. Kerdpon and S. Sirirungrojying. ‘A clinical study of oral tori in southern Thailand, prevalence and the relation to parafunctional activity’,
European Journal of Oral Sciences
, Vol. 107, No. 1, 1999, 9, 12–13.
23 Hauser and De Stefano, 1989, op. cit., 174, 176; Eggen
et al
., 1994, op. cit.; 54; El-Najjar and McWilliams, 1978, op. cit., 143–44; Halffman
et al
., 1992, op. cit., 154; Kerdpon and Sirirungrojying, 1999, op. cit., 9, 12. There are various views on the relationship between age and the expression of palatine torus but most scholars report a higher incidence in females than males, with the exception of J. Skrzat
et al
. who found equal incidence of this trait in males and females. J. Skrzat
et al
., ‘The morphological appearance of the palatine torus in the Cracovian skulls (XV–XVIII century)’,
Folia Morphol
, Vol. 62, No. 3, 2003, 185. 24 Capasso, 2001, op. cit., 982.
25 Pardoe, 1984, op. cit., 115–17, Fig. 33.
26 Berry and Berry, 1967, op. cit., 376.
27 As in the case of Halffman and Irish, 2004, op. cit., 105.
28 J.B. Woelfel,
Dental Anatomy: Its Relevance to Dentistry
. 4th edn. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1990; 78.
29 C.G. Turner, II (Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, USA) to E. Lazer, 1993, personal communication; G.R. Scott and C.G. Turner,
The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and Its Variation in Recent Human Populations
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, 322.
30 Berry and Berry, 1967, op. cit., 367; El-Najjar and McWilliams, 1978, op. cit., 122–23; Hauser and De Stefano, 1989, op. cit., 46–48; Ossenberg, 1970, op. cit., 361–62; Saunders, 1989, op. cit., 96.
31 Berry and Berry, 1967, op. cit., 367; Capasso, 2001, op. cit., 982, 984; Hauser and De Stefano, 1989, op. cit., 42–43; Nicolucci, 1882, op. cit., 10–11.
32 Hauser and De Stefano, 1989, op. cit., 99, 102; Hanihara and Ishida, 2001a, op. cit., 139–
_{40. For scoring of inca bones in the Pompeian sample, see Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 460–62.}