The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine (63 page)

6
.
F. A. Hartman
et al.
, ‘The Hormone of the Adrenal Cortex',
Science
, 1930, Vol. 72, p. 76.

7
.
H. L. Mason
et al.
, ‘The Chemistry of Crystalline Substances Isolated from the Suprarenal Gland',
Journal of Biological Chemistry
, 1936, Vol. 114, pp. 613–31.

8
.
H. Selye, ‘Thymus and Adrenals in the Response of the Organism to Injuries and Intoxications',
British Journal of Experimental Pathology
, 1936, Vol. 17, p. 234.

9
.
See Note 2. See also Edward Kendall, ‘The Development of Cortisone as a Therapeutic Agent',
Nobel Lectures: Physiology or Medicine, 1942–62
(New York: Elsevier, 1964).

10
.
J. H. H. Glyn,
Cortisone Therapy
(Heinemann, 1957).

11
.
The Times
, 5 July 1949.

12
.
Philip S. Hench, ‘A Reminiscence of Certain Events Before, During and After the Discovery of Cortisone',
Minnesota Medicine
, July 1953, pp. 705–10.

13
.
W. S. C. Copeman (ed.),
Cortisone and ACTH in Clinical Practice
(Butterworth, 1953).

14
.
The initial reaction to Hench's paper had been very enthusiastic. See ‘A New Treatment for Rheumatoid Arthritis',
BMJ
, 7 May 1949, p. 812, and ‘Cortisone in the Treatment of Rheumatism',
BMJ
, 2 July 1949, p. 24. Hench's results were replicated in Britain in a trial reported in the
BMJ
the following year: ‘A Study of
Cortisone and Other Steroids in Rheumatoid Arthritis', 14 October 1950, pp. 847–55: ‘the dramatic clinical effects of cortisone were immediately obvious'.

15
.
Harvey A. McGhee
et al.
, ‘Introduction to a Series of Papers on Studies on ACTH and Cortisone',
BJHH
, 1950, Vol. 87, pp. 349–507.

16
.
The main papers describing the effect of cortisone in diseases other than rheumatoid arthritis include: Philip S. Hench
et al.
,
PSMMC
, 1949, Vol. 24, pp. 277–97 (rheumatic fever); L. A. Brunsting
et al.
,
PSMMC
, 1950, Vol. 25, pp. 479–82 (lupus erythematosis); R. A. Carey,
BJHH
, 1950, Vol. 87, pp. 425–60 (polyarteritis nodosa); T.W. Oppel,
Annals of Internal Medicine
, 1950, Vol. 32, pp. 318–24 (dermatomyositis); R. R. Kierland
et al.
,
Archives of Dermatology and Syphilology
, 1951, Vol. 64, pp. 549–54 (scleroderma); R. A. Carey
et al.
,
BJHH
, 1950, Vol. 87, pp. 354–414 (drug hypersensitivity and asthma); A. C. Woods,
American Journal of Ophthalmology
, 1950, Vol. 33, pp. 1325–49 (ocular inflammatory disease); B. J. Kennedy
et al.
,
AJM
, 1951, Vol. 10, pp. 134–55 (silicosis); M. Gladstone
et al.
,
AJM
, 1951, Vol. 10, pp. 166–81 (pulmonary fibrosis); L. E. Shulman,
BJHH
, 1952, Vol. 91, pp. 371–415 (sarcoidosis); W. H. Deering
et al.
,
PSMMC
, 1950, Vol. 25, pp. 486–8 (ulcerative colitis); T. E. Machella
et al.
,
AJM
, 1951, Vol. 221, pp. 501–7 (Crohn's); E. R. Sulzberg
et al.
,
JAMA
, 1953, Vol. 151, pp. 468–72 (dermatological disease); E. P. Farnsworth,
Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine
, 1950, Vol. 74, pp. 60–2 (nephrotic syndrome);M. M. Wintrobe
et al.
,
AMA Archives of Internal Medicine
, 1951, Vol. 88, pp. 310–36 (haematological disorders); H. Ducchi
et al.
,
Gastroenterology
, 1952, Vol. 21, pp. 357–74 (hepatitis).

3: 1950: Streptomycin, Smoking and Sir Austin Bradford Hill

GENERAL READING

Sir Austin Bradford Hill,
Statistical Method in Clinical and Preventive Medicine
(E & S Livingstone, 1962) – a collection of his important papers.

Richard Doll, ‘Sir Austin Bradford Hill and the Progress of Medical Science',
BMJ
, 1992, Vol. 305, pp. 1521–6.

Edmund A. Gehan and Noreen Lemak,
Statistics in Medical Research: Developments in Clinical Trials
(New York: Plenum, 1994).

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC),
Statistical Methods in Cancer Research, Vol. 1: The Analysis of Case-Control Studies
(IARC, 1987).

——,
Statistical Methods in Cancer Research, Vol. 2: The Design and Analysis of Cohort Studies
(IARC, 1987).

David E. Lillienfeld and Abraham M. Lillienfeld, ‘Epidemiology: A Retrospective Study',
American Journal of Epidemiology
, 1977, Vol. 106, pp. 445–59.

J. Rosser Matthews,
Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).

Theodore M. Porter,
The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820–1900
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986).

——,
Trust in numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).

Statistics in Medicine
, 1982, Vol. 1, pp. 1–375 – a series of essays exploring different aspects of Bradford Hill's life.

Mervyn Susser, ‘Epidemiology in the United States After World War II: The Evolution of Technique',
Epidemiologic Reviews
, 1985, Vol. 7, pp. 147–77.

Peter Taylor,
Smoke Ring: The Politics of Tobacco
(Bodley Head, 1986).

Lisa Wilkinson, ‘Sir Austin Bradford Hill: Medical Statistics and the Quantitative Approach to Prevention of Disease',
Addiction
, 1997, Vol. 92, pp. 657–66.

REFERENCES

1
.
Sir Henry Dale, ‘Advances in Medicinal Therapeutics',
BMJ
, 7 January 1950, pp. 1–7.

2
.
A. Bradford Hill, ‘The Life of Sir Leonard Erskine-Hill FRS, 1866–1952',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
, 1968, Vol. 61, pp. 307–16. See also I. D. Hill, ‘Austin Bradford Hill: Ancestry and Early Life',
Statistics in Medicine
, 1982, Vol. 1, pp. 297–300.

3
.
A. Bradford Hill, ‘A Pilot in the First World War',
BMJ
, 1983, Vol. 287, pp. 1947–8.

4
.
Major Greenwood, ‘Medical Statistics',
The Lancet
, 1921, Vol. 1, pp. 985–8. See also Major Greenwood,
Some British Pioneers of Social Medicine
(Oxford: OUP, 1948).

5
.
Edmund A. Gehan and Noreen Lemak,
Statistics in Medical Research: Developments in Clinical Trials
.

6
.
A. Bradford Hill, ‘Memories of the British Streptomycin Trial',
Controlled Clinical Trials
, 1990, Vol. 11, pp. 77–9.

7
.
Linda Bryder,
Below the Magic Mountain
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988). See also John R. Bumgarner, ‘Phthisis: My Case History',
North Carolina Medical Journal
, 1993, Vol. 54, pp. 288–90.

8
.
P. d'Arcy Hart, ‘Chemotherapy of Tuberculosis Research During the Past 100 Years',
BMJ
, 1946, Vol. 30, pp. 805–11; Part 2, 7 December 1946, pp. 849–55.

9
.
S. A. Waksman,
My Life With the Microbes
(Robert Hale, 1958).

10
.
Frank Ryan,
Tuberculosis: The Greatest Story Never Told
(Bath: Swift Books, 1992).

11
.
Julius Comroe, ‘Pay Dirt: The Story of Streptomycin',
American Review of Respiratory Disease
, 1978, Vol. 117, pp. 773–81; Part 2, pp. 957–68.

12
.
Albert Schatz and Selman Waksman, ‘Effect of Streptomycin upon Mycobacterium Tuberculosis and Related Organisms',
Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine
, 1944, Vol. 57, pp. 244–8.

13
.
H. C. Hinshaw and W. H. Feldman, ‘Streptomycin and the Treatment of Clinical Tuberculosis: A Preliminary Report',
PSMMC
, 1945, Vol. 18, pp. 313–18.

14
.
Frederick Bernheim, ‘The Effect of Salicylate on the Oxygen Uptake of the Tubercle Bacillus',
Science
, 1940, Vol. 92, p. 204.

15
.
See Note 10.

16
.
Jorgen Lehmann, ‘Para-amino Salicylic Acid in the Treatment of Tuberculosis',
The Lancet
, 1946, Vol. 1, pp. 15–16.

17
.
F. H. K. Green, ‘The Clinical Evaluation of Remedies',
The Lancet
, 1954, Vol. 2, pp. 1085–91. See also J. P. Bull, ‘The Historical Development of Clinical Therapeutic Trials',
Journal of Chronic Diseases
, 1959, Vol. 10, pp. 218–48.

18
.
Peter M. Dunn, ‘James Lind of Edinburgh and the Treatment of Scurvy',
Archives of Disease in Childhood
, 1997, Vol. 76, pp. 64–5. See also Duncan P. Thomas, ‘Sailors, Scurvy and Science',
JRSM
, 1997, Vol. 90, pp. 50–4.

19
.
A. Bradford Hill, ‘The Clinical Trial',
NEJM
, 1952, Vol. 247, pp. 113–19.

20
.
John Crofton and D. A. Mitchison, ‘Streptomycin Resistance in Pulmonary Tuberculosis',
BMJ
, 11 December 1948, pp. 1009–15.

21
.
M. E. Florey,
The Clinical Application of Antibiotics, Vol. 2: Streptomycin
(Oxford: OUP, 1961), p. 133.

22
.
MRC, ‘Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis With PAS and Streptomycin: Preliminary Report',
BMJ
, 31 December 1949, p. 1521.

23
.
MRC, ‘Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis With Streptomycin and Para-amino-salycylic Acid',
BMJ
, 11 November 1950, pp. 1074–85.

24
.
MRC, ‘The Prevention of Streptomycin Resistance by Combined Chemotherapy',
BMJ
, 31 May 1952, pp. 1157–64.

25
.
MRC, ‘Isoniazid in the Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis',
BMJ
, 7 March 1953, pp. 551–63.

26
.
Bernard Crick,
George Orwell: A Life
(Secker & Warburg, 1980).

27
.
Richard Doll, ‘Clinical Trials Retrospect and Prospect',
Statistics in Medicine
, 1982, Vol. 1, pp. 337–44.

28
.
W. Grant Waugh, ‘A Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Mathematics',
BMJ
, 3 November 1951, p. 1088.

29
.
Andrew Wilson
et al.
,
Clinical Trials: Symposium, 5 April 1962
(Pharmaceutical Press, 1962).

30
.
Joan Austoker,
History of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 1902–86
(Oxford: OUP, 1988).

31
.
J. R. Bignell, ‘Bronchial Carcinoma: Survey of 317 Patients',
The Lancet
, 1955, Vol. 1, pp. 786–8.

32
.
Conversation with Sir Richard Doll,
British Journal of Addiction
, 1991, Vol. 86, pp. 365–77. See also A. Bradford Hill, ‘Mortality from a Malignant Disease',
The Practitioner
, 1945, Vol. 155, pp. 27–34.

33
.
Richard Doll and A. Bradford Hill, ‘Smoking and Carcinoma of the Lung',
BMJ
, 30 September 1950, pp. 740–9.

34
.
Ernest L. Wynder and E. A. Graham, ‘Tobacco Smoking as a Possible Aetiologic Factor in Bronchiogenic Carcinoma',
JAMA
, 1950, Vol. 143, pp. 329–37.

35
.
A. Bradford Hill, ‘Do You Smoke?',
BMJ
, 10 November 1951, p. 1157.

36
.
Richard Doll and A. Bradford Hill, ‘Mortality of Doctors in Relation to Their Smoking Habits',
BMJ
, 26 June 1954, pp. 1451–5.

37
.
A. Bradford Hill, ‘Smoking and Cancer of the Lung',
The Lancet
, 1957, Vol. 2, p. 1289, in response to peripatetic correspondence: ‘In England Now',
The Lancet
, 1957, Vol. 2, p. 1226.

38
.
Richard Doll
et al.
, ‘Mortality in Relation to Smoking: Forty Years' Observation on Male British Doctors',
BMJ
, 1994, Vol. 309, pp. 901–9. See also David Sharp, ‘Cancer Prevention Tomorrow',
The Lancet
, 1993, Vol. 341, p. 486.

39
.
A. Bradford Hill, ‘Heberden Oration, 1965: Reflections on the Controlled Trial',
Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases
, 1966, Vol. 25, pp. 107–13.

40
.
A. Bradford Hill, ‘The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?',
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
, 1965, Vol. 58, pp. 295–300.

41
.
Alvin R. Feinstein, ‘Limitations of Randomised Trials',
Annals of Internal Medicine
, 1983, Vol. 99, pp. 544–50. See also Brian Cromie, ‘The Feet of Clay of the Double-blind Trial',
The Lancet
, 1963, Vol. 2, pp. 994–7; H. A. F. Dudley, ‘The Controlled Clinical Trial and the Advance of Reliable Knowledge: An Outsider Looks In',
BMJ
, 1983, Vol. 287, pp. 957–60; correspondence, M. Baum
et al.
,
BMJ
, 1983, Vol. 287, pp. 1216–18; Bruce G. Charlton, ‘The Future of Clinical Research: From Mega-trials Towards Methodological Rigour and Representative Sampling',
Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice
, 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 159–69; John C. Bailar, ‘The Promise and Problems of Meta-analysis',
NEJM
, 1997, Vol. 337, pp. 559–61; S. Blinkhorn, ‘Meta Better',
Nature
, 1998, Vol. 392, pp. 671–2.