The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine (71 page)

33
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Richard Doll,
Prevention of Cancer: Pointers from Epidemiology
(Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 1967).

34
.
Bruce Armstrong and Richard Doll, ‘Environmental Factors and Cancer Incidence and Mortality in Different Countries With Special Reference to Dietary Practices',
British Journal of Cancer
, 1975, Vol. 15, pp. 617–31.

35
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See Note 2.

36
.
J. Lyon
et al.
, ‘Cancer Incidence in Mormons and Non-Mormons in Utah During 1967–75',
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
, 1980, Vol. 65, pp. 1055–71. See also R. L. Phillips
et al.
, ‘Mortality Among California Seventh-Day Adventists for Selected Cancer Sites',
Journal of the National Cancer Institute
, 1980, Vol. 65, pp. 1097–1107.

37
.
Gary M. Williams and George T. Baker, ‘The Potential Relationships Between Ageing and Cancer',
Experimental Gerontology
, 1992, Vol. 27, pp. 469–76. See also Douglas Dix, ‘The Role of Ageing and Cancer Incidence: An Epidemiological Study',
Journal of Gerontology, Biological Sciences
, 1989, Vol. 44, pp. 10–18; Richard A. Miller, ‘Gerontology as Oncology',
Cancer
, 1991, Vol. 68, pp. 2496–501.

38
.
R. Peto, ‘Distorting the Epidemiology of Cancer: The Need for a More Balanced Overview',
Nature
, 1980, Vol. 284, pp. 297–300. See also Editorial, ‘Two Views of the Causes of Cancer',
Nature
, 1981, Vol. 289, pp. 431–2.

39
.
See Note 3.

40
.
Gino J. Marco (ed.),
Silent Spring Revisited
(Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1987).

41
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Eric Chivian
et al.
(eds),
Critical Condition: Human Health and the Environment
(Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1993).

42
.
M. Tubiana, ‘The Carcinogenic Effect of Exposure to Low Doses of Carcinogens',
British Journal of Industrial Medicine
, 1992, Vol. 49, pp. 601–5. See also Ronald L. Kathren, ‘Pathway to a Paradigm: The Linear Non-threshold Dose-response Model in Historical Context',
Health Physics
, 1996, Vol. 70, pp. 621–35.

43
.
Bruce N. Ames and Lois Gold, ‘Chemical Carcinogenesis: Too Many Rodent Carcinogens',
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
, 1990, Vol. 87, pp. 7772–6. See also Editorial, ‘Testing for Carcinogens With Rodents',
Science
, 1990, Vol. 249, P1357; correspondence:
Science
, 1990, Vol. 250, pp. 1644–6.

44
.
Stephen Safe, ‘Environmental and Dietary Oestrogens in Human Health: Is There a Problem?',
Environmental Health Perspectives
, 1995, Vol. 103, pp. 346–51.

45
.
‘Investigation of Possible Increased Incidence of Cancer in Western Cumbria', HMSO, 1984. See also David Sumner, ‘Low-level Radiation: How Dangerous is it?',
Medicine and War
, 1990, Vol. 6, pp. 112–19; Paula Cook Mozaffari, ‘Cancer Near Potential Sites of Nuclear Installations',
The Lancet
, 1989, Vol. 2, pp. 1145–7.

46
.
J. W. Stather
et al.
, ‘The Risk of Childhood Leukaemia Near Nuclear Establishments', NRPB-R215 (HMSO, 1988).

47
.
Edward Campion, ‘Powerlines, Cancer and Fear',
NEJM
, 1997, Vol. 337, pp. 45–7.

48
.
Aaron Wildavsky,
But is it True?
.

49
.
Alvan R. Feinstein, ‘Scientific Standards in Epidemiologic Studies of the Menace of Daily Life',
Science
, 1988, Vol. 242, pp. 1257–63. See also Linda C. Mayes
et al.
, ‘A Collection of Fifty-six Topics With Contradictory Results in Case Control Research',
International Journal of Epidemiology
, 1988, Vol. 17, pp. 680–5.

50
.
Geoffrey Rose, ‘Sick Individuals and Sick Populations',
International Journal of Epidemiology
, 1985, Vol. 14, pp. 32–8. See also Geoffrey Rose, ‘The Population Mean Predicts the Number of Deviant Individuals',
BMJ
, 1990, Vol. 301, pp. 1031–5; Geoffrey Rose,
The Strategy of Preventive Medicine
(Oxford: OUP, 1992); Bruce Charlton, ‘A Critique of Geoffrey Rose's “Population Strategy for Preventive Medicine”',
JRSM
, 1995, Vol. 88, pp. 607–8.

51
.
Marcia Angell, ‘Clinical Research: What Should the Public Believe?',
NEJM
, 1994, Vol. 331, pp. 189–90.

52
.
Gary Taubes, ‘Epidemiology Faces its Limits',
Science
, 1995, Vol.269, pp. 164–6.

1
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Y. Ben-Shlomo, ‘Dietary Fat and Epidemiology of Multiple Sclerosis',
Neuroepidemiology
, 1992, Vol. 11, pp. 214–25.

2
.
D. A. S. Compston, ‘The Dissemination of Multiple Sclerosis',
Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London
, 1990, Vol. 24, pp. 207–19. See also Bernard Souberbielle
et al.
, ‘Is There a Case for a Virus Etiology in Multiple Sclerosis?',
Scottish Medical Journal
, 1995, Vol. 40, pp. 55–6.

3
.
John F. Kurtzke
et al.
, ‘Multiple Sclerosis in the Faroe Islands',
Neurology
, 1986, Vol. 36, pp. 307–32.

4
.
Clark W. Heath and R. J. Hasterlik, ‘Leukaemia Among Children in a Suburban Community',
AJM
, 1963, Vol. 34, pp. 796–812.

5
.
L. J. Kinlen, ‘Epidemiological Evidence for an Infective Basis in Childhood Leukaemia',
British Journal of Cancer
, 1995, Vol. 71, pp. 1–5. See also M. F. Grieves, ‘Aetiology of Acute Leukaemia',
The Lancet
, 1997, Vol. 1, pp. 344–9.

6
.
Martin J. Blaser, ‘Helicobacter Pylori and Gastric Diseases',
BMJ
, 1998, Vol. 316, pp. 1507–10.

7
.
S. Shuster, ‘The Aetiology of Dandruff and the Mode of Action of Therapeutic Agents',
British Journal of Dermatology
, 1984, Vol. 111, pp. 235–42.

8
.
Allen Steere
et al.
, ‘The Spirochetal Aetiology of Lyme Disease',
NEJM
, 1983, Vol. 308, pp. 731–40.

9
.
J. S. H. Gaston, ‘The Role of Infection in Inflammatory Arthritis',
Quarterly Journal of Medicine
, 1984, Vol. 87, pp. 647–51. See also R.A. Hughes, ‘The Microbiology of Chronic Inflammatory Arthritis: An Historical View',
British Journal of Rheumatology
, 1994, Vol. 33, pp. 361–9; W. W. Buchanan, ‘That Rheumatoid Arthritis Will Disappear?',
Journal of Rheumatology
, 1979, Vol. 6, pp. 324–6; R.J. McKendry, ‘Is Rheumatoid Arthritis Caused by an Infection?',
The Lancet
, 1995, Vol. 1, pp. 1319–20; A. Ebringer, ‘Klebsiella Anti-bodies in Ankylosing Spondylitis and Proteus Antibodies in Rheumatoid Arthritis',
British Journal of Rheumatology
, 1988, Vol. 27
(supplement 2), pp. 72–85; J. S. H. Gaston, ‘Proteus: Is it a Likely Aetiological Factor in Chronic Polyarthritis?',
Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases
, 1995, Vol. 54, pp. 157–8.

10
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S. Murakami
et al.
, ‘Bell's Palsy and Herpes Simplex Virus: Identification of Viral DNA in Endoneurial Fluid and Muscle',
Annals of Internal Medicine
, 1996, Vol. 124, pp. 27–30.

11
.
D. Whitby
et al.
, ‘Detection of Kaposi Sarcoma Associated Herpes Virus in Peripheral Blood of HIV-infected individuals and Progression to Kaposi's Sarcoma',
The Lancet
, 1995, Vol. 346, pp. 799–802.

12
.
J. D. H. Morris, ‘Viral Infection and Cancer',
The Lancet
, 1995, Vol. 346, pp. 754–8.

13
.
G. B. Clements
et al.
, ‘Coxsackie B Virus Infection and Onset of Childhood Diabetes',
The Lancet
, 1995, Vol. 346, pp. 221–3. See also M. Horwitz
et al.
, ‘Diabetes Induced by Coxsackie Virus: Initiation by Bystander Damage and Not Molecular Mimicry',
Nature Medicine
, 1998, Vol. 4, pp. 781–5.

14
.
R. Gallo
et al.
, ‘Frequent Detection and Isolation of Cytopathic Retroviruses from Patients With AIDS and at Risk for AIDS',
Science
, 1984, Vol. 224, pp. 500–3. See also Jean L. Mar, ‘Strong New Candidate for AIDS Agent',
Science
, 1984, Vol. 224, pp. 475–7.

15
.
Stanley B. Prusiner, ‘Novel Proteinaceous Infectious Particles Cause Scrapie',
Science
, 1982, Vol. 216, pp. 136–43. See also Stanley B. Prusiner, ‘Prion Diseases of Humans and Animals',
Journal of the Royal College of Physicians
, 1994, Vol. 28, 2S; Roger Rosenberg, ‘Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1997 Awarded to Stanley B. Prusiner',
Archives of Neurology
, 1997, Vol. 54, p. 1456.

PART 4: THE RISE AND FALL: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

1
.
John Horgan,
The End of Science
(Little, Brown, 1996). See also Bentley Glass, ‘Science: Endless Horizons or Golden Age?',
Science
, 1971, Vol. 171, pp. 23–9.

2
.
M. Baum, ‘Screening for Breast Cancer: Time to Think – and Stop',
The Lancet
, 1995, Vol. 346, pp. 436–7.

3
.
Arthur J. Baskey,
Worried Sick: Our Troubled Quest for Wellness
(New York: Little, Brown, 1988).

4
.
Roy Porter,
The Greatest Benefit to Mankind
(HarperCollins, 1998).

1
.
Lord Horder, ‘Whither Medicine?',
BMJ
, 2 April 1949, pp. 557–60.

2
.
Gail Vines, ‘Starvation Diet',
New Scientist
, 4 July 1998, p. 50.

3
.
Sir William Osler, quoted in Horder, ‘Whither Medicine?',
BMJ
, 2 April 1949, pp. 557–60.

4
.
Richard Horton, ‘A Manifesto for Reading Medicine',
The Lancet
, 1997, Vol. 349, pp. 872–3.

5
.
Sandra J. Tanenbaum, ‘What Physicians Know',
NEJM
, 1993, Vol. 329, pp. 1268–71. See also Gilbert M. Goldman, ‘The Tacit Dimension of Clinical Judgement',
Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine
, 1993, Vol. 63, pp. 47–61.

6
.
Editorial, ‘Meta-analysis Under Scrutiny',
The Lancet
, 1997, Vol. 350, p. 675. See also Samuel Shapiro, ‘Meta-analysis/Schmeta-analysis',
American Journal of Epidemiology
, 1994, Vol. 140, pp. 771–8.

7
.
Editorial, ‘A Meeting Too Many',
The Lancet
, 1998, Vol. 352, p. 1161.

8
.
James McCormick, ‘Death of the Personal Doctor',
The Lancet
, 1996, Vol. 2, pp. 667–8.

1
.
Office of Health Economics,
Compendium of Health Statistics 20th Edition
(Office of Health Economics, 2010).

2
.
H. Moses, E. R. Dorsey, D. H. M. Matheson
et al
., ‘Financial Anatomy of Biomedical Research'
JAMA, 2005
, Vol. 295, pp. 1333–42.

3
.
Elias Derhouni, ‘NIH in the Post-Doubling Era: Realities and Strategies',
Science
, 2006, Vol. 314, pp. 1088–91.

4
.
Carroll Estes and Elizabeth Binney, ‘The Biomedicalisation of
Ageing: Dangers and Dilemmas',
Gerontologist
, 1989, Vol. 29, pp. 587–96.

1
.
Quoted in Sharon Kaufman, Janet K. Shim and Anne Ross, ‘Revisiting the Biomedicalisation of Ageing: Clinical Trends and Ethical Challenges',
Gerontologist
, 2004, Vol. 44, pp. 731–38.

2
.
Charles Dotter and Melvin Judkins, ‘Transluminal Treatment of Arteriosclerotic Obstruction',
Circulation
, 1964, Vol. 30, pp. 654–70.

3
.
Steven Friedman, ‘Charles Dotter, Interventional Radiologist',
Radiology
, 1989, Vol. 172, pp. 921–24.

4
.
Spencer King, ‘Angioplasty from Bedside to Bench',
Circulation
, 1996, Vol. 93, pp. 1621–9.

5
.
Richard Mueller and Timothy Sanborn, ‘The History of Interventional Cardiology: Cardiac Catheterisation, Angioplasty and Related Interventions',
American Heart Journal
, 1995, Vol. 129, pp. 146–72.

6
.
Josef Rosch, Frederick Keller and John Kaufman, ‘The Birth, Early Years and Future of Interventional Radiology',
Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology
, 2003, Vol. 14, pp. 841–53.

7
.
J. Eduardo Souza, Marco Costa
et al.
, ‘New Frontiers in Interventional Cardiology',
Circulation
, 2005, Vol. 111, pp. 601–81.

8
.
Carl Pepine, Xavier Prida
et al.
, ‘Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty in Acute Myocardial Infarction',
American Heart Journal
, 1984, Vol. 107, pp. 820–22.