Vichy France (41 page)

¹²⁰
Yves Bouthillier,
Le Drame de l’armistice
, 1.
Face à l’ennemi, face à l’allié
(Paris, 1950), 13; Lucien Mehl, “Die Zunahme des Personalbestandes im öffentlichen Dienst Frankreichs,” in Carl Hermann Ule (ed.),
Die Entwicklung des öffentlichen Dienstes
(Berlin, München, Bonn, 1961).

¹²¹
Maurice Duverger,
La Situation des fonctionnaires depuis la révolution de 1940
(Paris, 1941), 70 ff.; Andre Bisson,
Finances publiques françaises
(Paris, 1943), 271–72.

¹²²
Pierre Doueil,
L’Administration locale à l’épreuve de la guerre, 1939–49
(Paris, 1950), 283–85. Gaullist law professor René Cassin is mistaken in asserting that the Conseil d’Etat’s role in preparing legislation was “a striking innovation” of the Fourth Republic. See his “Recent Reforms in the Government and Administration of France,”
Public Administration
XXVIII:3 (Autumn 1950), 179–87.

¹²³
See the approving account of this legislation in Maurice Duverger,
La Situation des fonctionnaires depuis la révolution de 1940
(Paris, 1941).

¹²⁴
At the end of the nineteenth century, a Conseiller d’état received eight times as much as an auditeur de 2e classe just beginning his career in the Conseil d’Etat; in 1939 he received four times as much; in 1954 he received twice as much. On the “closing of the fan” of salaries, see Christian Chavanon, “Les Hauts Fonctionnaires,” in
Aspects de la société française
(Paris, 1954), 165.

¹²⁵
Francis Ripert, “Le Régime administratif de la ville de Marseille,”
Annales de la faculté de droit d’Aix
, Nouvelle Série No. 25 (1942).

¹²⁶
Pierre Doueil,
L’Administration locale à l’épreuve de la guerre, 1939–49
(Paris, 1950), 153 ff., has the most information. Some studies of local government were made for the conference on Vichy at the Institut des Sciences Politiques at Paris, March 1970, but have not yet been published.

¹²⁷
Charles Maurras,
La Seule France
(Paris, 1941), 167; René Gillouin, “Doctrine de l’état français,”
Revue universelle
, 25 July 1941, 77–78; Emmanuel Mounier, “D’Une France à l’autre,”
Esprit
, 8e année, no. 94 (Nov. 1940). The PSF leader Ybarnégaray expected a major purge of administrators,
Ministère public c/Ybarnégaray
, 31. See also Maurras’ denunciation of a “biscornu et minutieux” statism in
Action française
, 27 August 1942.

¹²⁸
Anatole de Monzie,
La Saison des juges
(Paris, 1943). The best account of the origins and vagaries of the legend of Synarchie is Richard F. Kuisel, “The Legend of the Vichy Synarchy,”
French Historical Studies
VI: 3 (Spring 1970), 365 ff.

¹²⁹
See
Conférence de M. Bichelonne, Ministre-Secrétaire d’état à la production industrielle et aux communications
(Paris, 1943) [BN 8
⁰
L
¹⁸
k.4003(4)].

¹³⁰
Félix Ponteil,
Les Classes bourgeoises et l’avènement de la démocratie
(Paris, 1966), 449, observes that regionalism had been a club to batter the “république des camarades” since the nineteenth century.

¹³¹
Le Temps
, 5 May 1941, contains a list of members and an outline of the committee’s methods of operation. The committee’s minutes have been used by Pierre Bancal,
Les Circonscriptions administratives de la France: leurs origines et leur avenir
(Paris, 1945), 258 ff.

¹³²
Pierre Doueil,
L’Administration locale à l’épreuve de la guerre, 1939–49
(Paris, 1950), 22–72, has the clearest sympathetic account. See also Brian Chapman, “A Development in French Regional Administration,”
Public Administration
XXVIII:4 (Winter, 1950).

¹³³
The Communist Manifesto, 1848; Jean Giono,
Regain
(Paris, 1930).

¹³⁴
Lucien Romier,
Problèmes économiques de l’heure présente
(Montréal, 1933), 135, 170.

¹³⁵
Lucien Romier,
Plaisir de France
(Paris, 1932), 84, quoted in Pierre Barral,
Les Agrariens français de Méline à Pisani
(Paris, 1968), 201.

¹³⁶
Pierre Barral, 201–2, 260–63 has a good bibliography of literature praising rural life.

¹³⁷
Drieu la Rochelle in
L’Emancipation nationale
, 20 August 1937, quoted in Raoul Girardet, “Notes sur l’Esprit d’un fascisme français, 1934–39,”
Revue française de science politique
V (1955), 533. Girardet gives many other examples of rural nostalgia. See also Robert Soucy, “The Nature of Fascism in France,”
Journal of Contemporary History
(1966).

¹³⁸
The phrase is Pierre Barral’s.

¹³⁹
Barral, 232, 241, describes the evolution by which the term
peasant
evolved from epithet in the nineteenth century to acceptance and even pride in the twentieth. Vichy propagandists liked to praise the great peasants of France from Jeanne d’Arc to Marshal Pétain.

¹⁴⁰
The two indispensable works on French agricultural politics in the 1930’s are Pierre Barral,
Les Agrariens français de Méline à Pisani
(Paris, 1968), and Gordon Wright,
Rural Revolution in France
(Stanford, 1964).

¹⁴¹
John H. Clapham,
The Economic Development of France and Germany
, 4th ed. (Cambridge, 1951), 25–26, 69–70, 181, 194; Barral, 222, 230–31. Achard served Vichy as secretary of state for food supply, 1940–41.

¹⁴²
Charles K. Warner,
The Winegrowers of France and the Government since 1875
(New York, 1960). See an excellent brief account in Emmanuel Le Roy-Ladurie,
Histoire du Languedoc
(Paris, 1962).

¹⁴³
Ministère public c/Caziot
; Barral, 199.

¹⁴⁴
Jacques Le Roy-Ladurie, “La Terre et ses défenseurs,”
Le Flambeau
, 1 September 1933. I owe this reference to Mrs. Judith Wishnia.

¹⁴⁵
Barral, 235–36.

¹⁴⁶
Barral, 141, for example.

¹⁴⁷
Michel Cépède,
Agriculture et alimentation en France pendant la deuxième guerre mondiale
(Paris, 1961), is the basic work.

¹⁴⁸
See Barral, 258, and Caziot’s own
Au service da la paysannerie
(Clermont-Ferrand, 1941).

¹⁴⁹
J. M. Jeanneney and M. Perrot,
Textes de droit économique et social français, 1789–1957
(Paris, 1957), 219–21, 233–34.

¹⁵⁰
Commissariat du Plan,
Rapport
, 1946, 121, 144.

¹⁵¹
Barral, 258; Wright, 90–92.

¹⁵²
Barral, 258. For agricultural statistics, see chap. 5. Wright, 227.

¹⁵³
T-120/405/213883–85, 214039; T-120/5586H/E401104–8; Militärbefehlshaber in Frankreich, “Politische Lage in Frankreich,” 4700/41g, 25 September 1941 (CDJC LXXV-98 ff.).

¹⁵⁴
It should be observed that Le Roy-Ladurie resigned in September 1942 after opposing Laval’s labor draft and later fought in the
maquis.
He was acquitted by the Haute Cour in 1945.

¹⁵⁵
Institut National de la Statistique et des Études Économiques, Le Mouvement économique de la France de 1938 à 1948
(Paris, 1950), 65, 67.

¹⁵⁶
See, e.g., Roland Maspiétol,
L’Ordre éternel des champs
(Paris, 1946). Wright, 89–90, notes the evolution of the corporatists away from protection toward productivity by the end of the war.

¹⁵⁷
See Gaëtan Pirou,
Néo-libéralisme, néo-corporatisme, néo-socialisme
(Paris, 1939), 23, and Lucien Romier works in footnotes 136–37.

¹⁵⁸
The 1930’s French literature of corporatism is immense. The most articulate statements come from professors of law, especially at Paris. See Francois Perroux,
Capitalisme et communauté de travail
(Paris, 1938); Gaëtan Pirou,
Essais sur le corporatisme
(Paris, 1938). Among businessmen, see Auguste Detoeuf,
Passé, présent, et avenir de l’organisation professionnelle en France
(Paris, 1946). Most writers on corporatism were professors of economics in law faculties: François Perroux, Gaëtan Pirou, Louis Baudin, Maurice Bouvier-Ajam, François Olivier-Martin. See also Matthew H. Elbow,
French Corporatist Theory, 1789–1948
(New York, 1953).

¹⁵⁹
See Roger Priouret,
Origines du patronat français
(Paris, 1963), and André François-Poncet,
La Vie et l’oeuvre de Robert Pinot
(Paris, 1927), for lack of something better on the Comité des Forges.

¹⁶⁰
For French participation in cartels, see Frank A. Haight,
A History of French Commercial Policies
(New York, 1941), 198–203; Ervin Hexner,
International Cartels
(Chapel Hill, N.C., 1945), 136, 138.

¹⁶¹
The CGT leaders’ offers of cooperation in the summer and fall of 1940 are stressed by Georges Lefranc,
Les Expériences syndicales en France de 1939 à 1950
(Paris, 1950), 37–40. Lefranc, who was Belin’s
chef de cabinet
, claims that the Jouhaux group of the CGT, in a meeting at Toulouse on 20 July 1940, proposed a “French Community of Labor” and joint worker-management councils and that they offered to replace strikes with arbitration and to suppress the mention of class struggle in the CGT statutes.

¹⁶²
Bergery’s newspaper
La Flèche
carried a masthead appeal “for the gathering of all who want to liberate France from the tyranny of money and the interference of foreign governments.” I have not been able to consult the thesis on Bergery by Michèle Cotta at the Institut des Sciences Politiques in Paris. Bergery sounds objectively fascist, but he denounced fascism for seeking “scapegoats in war-mongering and racism.”
La Flèche
, no. 133, 26 August 1938. Bergery wound up as Vichy ambassador to the Soviet Union.

¹⁶³
For background, see Gaston Bergery, “Vers une réforme des sociétés,”
La Flèche
, no. 112, 1 April 1938, 5; Yves Bouthillier’s
exposé de motifs
for the law, in
France Nouvelle: Actes et paroles du maréchal Pétain
, 90–91, may be compared with his explanations in
Le Drame de l’armistice
(Paris, 1950), 11, 299–301. See also Georges Ripert, “Une nouvelle réforme des sociétés par actions,”
Revue générale du droit commercial
, 5e année (1943), 89–108. The law was considerably softened on 16 November 1940.