Vichy France (39 page)

³⁰
Jérôme Carcopino,
Souvenirs de sept ans, 1937–44
(Paris, 1953), 318. The obedience theme is stressed in Monseigneur Guerry,
L’Eglise en France sous l’Occupation
(Paris, 1947). Jacques Duquesne,
Les Catholiques français sous l’occupation
(Paris, 1966), 55, distinguishes more subtly between observance of the laws and active support for the regime.

³¹
Ministère public c / Chevalier
; Carcopino, 300. Duquesne, 104, argues that some Catholics, including the Papal Nuncio, Mgr. Valerio Valeri, already had doubts about the wisdom of associating favors to the church with a regime that might be transitory.

³²
Duquesne, 93–100; Carcopino, 330.

³³
Duquesne, 102, points out the disappointment of some church groups with the caution of these restitutions. Jean Le Cour Grandmaison praised these arrangements as “a breath of liberty” in
Figaro
, 26 May 1942. For the return of Lourdes, see Ministère de l’Intérieur,
Bulletin officiel
, February 1941.

³⁴
Duquesne, 104, says the Vatican was reluctant.

³⁵
FRUS
, 1940, II, 384. Particular hostility was focused on Popular Front Education Minister Jean Zay, murdered in 1944 by Miliciens. Céline liked to spell ‘I hate you’ as ‘Je vous Zay.’ See
L’Ecole des cadavres
(Paris, 1938), 22.

³⁶
Georges Duveau,
Les Instituteurs
(Paris, 1957), 107–67; Jacques Ozouf,
Nous, les maîtres d’école; autobiographies d’instituteurs de la ‘Belle Epoque’
(Paris, 1967).

³⁷
Ferdinand Buisson, quoted in Antoine Prost,
L’Enseignement en France
(Paris, 1968), 397.

³⁸
See John E. Talbott,
The Politics of Educational Reform in France, 1918–40
(Princeton, N.J., 1969), 30, for the clearest description in any language.

³⁹
André Delmas’ rather thin memoirs of the Teachers’ Union, under his leadership in the 1930’s,
A Gauche de la barricade
(Paris, 1950), 47–48, attributes about 90,000 teachers to his union (SNI) and about 3,000 to the teachers’ branch of the Communist CGTU before the reunion of 1936.

⁴⁰
The words are Pierre Pucheu’s.
Ma Vie
(Paris, 1948), 281–86.

⁴¹
Ministère de l’Intérieur,
Bulletin officiel
, (1940), 151, and Darlan circular of 6 June 1941;
Ministère public c/Ybarnégaray
, 47–58. I owe the figure on the number of teachers purged for masonry to Mrs. Mary Lynn McDougall.

⁴²
Haute Cour de Justice, Arrêt de non-lieu: Mireaux;
Le Temps
, 23 September 1940, 1 January 1941; Pucheu, 299, 286; Charles Maurras,
La Seule France
(Lyons, 1941), 241.

⁴³
See Jean Guéhenno,
Journal des années noires
(Paris, 1947), 21 September 1943, for his demotion for political reasons; Haute Cour de Justice, Arrêt de non-lieu: Mireaux, names some university professors removed for being aboard the
Massilia.

⁴⁴
For all the preceding, the most interesting accounts are Antoine Prost,
L’Enseignement en France
(Paris, 1968), and John E. Talbott,
The Politics of Educational Reform in France
, 1918–1940 (Princeton, N.J., 1969). See also David Watson, “The Politics of Educational Reform in France during the Third Republic, 1900–1940,”
Past and Present
, no. 34 (July 1966), 81–99, who draws upon work by Christian Peyre in
Ecole et Société
, to which I have not had access, to show a rise in lower class pupils in secondary school from 3 percent to 12 percent between 1936 and 1942. The
Annuaire statistique
for 1938 shows that
lycée
enrollment jumped from 119,000 to 128,000, by almost 8 percent, in the one year 1929–30.

⁴⁵
Talbott, 78–86, 98.

⁴⁶
Carcopino, 412; Haute Cour de Justice, Arrêt de non-lieu: Jérôme Carcopino, 1. Prost, 330, is most eloquent on the stability of the
lycée
system until 1930.

⁴⁷
Carcopino, 417; Guy Raïssac,
Un Combat sans merci
(Paris, 1966), 335–36; a sample prefect’s letter to teachers in 1943 appears in the trial of Angéli, prefect of Lyon.

⁴⁸
Le Temps
, 9 August 1941.
Espoir français
, nos. 357–58, estimated that about one French youth in seven belonged to a youth organization. For lavish government support, see Cour des Comptes,
Rapport … 1940–44
(Paris, 1947), 12–17.

⁴⁹
E.g., see Edouard Lavergne, “Pour une jeunesse nationale,”
Revue universelle
, 18 January 1941.

⁵⁰
Paul Baudouin,
Neuf mois au gouvernement
(Paris, 1948), 396, notes the opposition of Cardinal Gerlier of Lyons to a single national youth organization.

⁵¹
La France militaire
, 10 September 1941.

⁵²
General A. Niessel, “Les Compagnons de France,”
Revue des deux mondes
, 15 October 1941; Wako, “Ubersicht über die französischen Jugend-organisationen,” 1 April 1941 (T-77/OKW-685/2,499,479 ff.); OKH Gen. St d H/Abt. Fremde Heere West (11), “Lagebericht West Nr. 701: Frankreich,” 24 July 1942 (T-78/H2–184/6,428,822 ff.).

⁵³
Jean Ybarnégaray, “Le Grand soir des honnêtes gens: le 6 Février 1934,”
Les Grandes conférences des ambassadeurs
, 23 February 1934. Information drawn also from
Ministère public c/ Jean Ybarnégaray.
It is only fair to add that Ybarnégaray was arrested by the Germans in 1943 for helping some people cross the Pyrenees to Spain and was deported to Planze (Tyrol).

⁵⁴
Georges Lamirand,
Le rôle social de l’ingénieur
(Paris, 1932), with subsequent editions in 1937 (after the fright of June 1936) and again in 1954; Hubert Lyautey, “Le rôle social de l’officier,”
Revue des deux mondes
(1890).

⁵⁵
Ibid., 1954 edition, v, 263.

⁵⁶
Like many other conservatives, he wound up in the Resistance in 1944.

⁵⁷
Robert O. Paxton,
Parades and Politics at Vichy
(Princeton, N.J., 1966), 202–13; Jean Hervet,
Les Chantiers de Jeunesse
(Paris, 1962), highly sympathetic.

⁵⁸
German intelligence reports on the Chantiers de la Jeunesse may be found in T-77/OKW-1397, T-77/OKW-1434, T-77/OKW-1400, and T-78/H2–184. General de la Porte du Theil told the author in 1960 that the Chantiers were not a secret army.

⁵⁹
Janine Bourdin, “Des intellectuels à la recherche d’un style de vie: L’Ecole de cadres d’Uriage,”
Revue française de science politique
, December 1959; Paul. Delouvrier, “Uriage,” in
Gazette de l’inspection
, No. 7 (Oct. 1941), 11–15. Delouvrier was mayor of Algiers in the 1960’s when General Dunoyer de Segonzac was in charge of a program to win Algerian youth to France. Other
anciens
of Uriage include Hubert Beuve-Méry, later editor of
Le Monde
, and Emmanuel Mounier’s successor as editor of
Esprit
, Jean-Marie Domenach.

⁶⁰
Emile Arrighi de Casanova, “Les Réformes apportées par le Code de la Famille au Code Civil,”
Annales de la Faculté de droit d’Aix
, Nouvelle Série No. 33 (Aix-en-Provence, 1941). R. Talmy,
Histoire du mouvement familial
(Paris, 1962), and Wesley Camp,
Marriage and the Family in France since the Revolution
(New York, 1961).

⁶¹
Ministère public c/ Jean Ybarnégaray
, 41. M. Ybarnégaray evidently chose fecundity over family solidarity where the two values conflicted. He had four legitimate children and recognized one illegitimate child.

⁶²
Circulaire of 26 May 1941, Ministère de la Justice,
Bulletin officiel
, 1941, 62–67; Circulaire of 25 April 1942,
ibid.
, 1942, 44.

⁶³
André Bisson,
Finances publiques françaises
(Paris, 1943), 271–72; for the
conseil municipal
of Nice, see T-586/441/023605.

⁶⁴
Circulaire of 25 March 1942, Ministère de la Justice,
Bulletin officiel
, 1942, 26–29.

⁶⁵
Jacques Desmarest,
La Politique de la main-d’oeuvre en France
(Paris, 1946), 130–31.

⁶⁶
Journal officiel
, 2–3 September 1941, 3694–3715.

⁶⁷
Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques,
Recensement général de la population effectué le 10 mars 1946
(Paris, 1949), viii.

⁶⁸
This phrase of Edouard Drumont, revived by Maurras and shouted in the streets in the demonstrations of 6 February 1934, reached final respectability as the title of an editorial in
Le Temps
, 25 July 1940.

⁶⁹
Jacques Desmarest,
Le Politique de la main-d’oeuvre en France
(Paris, 1946), 60 ff. Desmarest is particularly well informed about Vichy labor policies, having served as
chef de cabinet
to Gaston Bruneton, commissioner for French labor working in Germany, 1942–44.

⁷⁰
Desmarest, 131.
Le Flambeau
, 27 June 1936.

⁷¹
Joseph Billig,
Le Commissariat général aux questions juives, 1941–44
(Paris, 1955–60), I, 226;
Le Procès de Xavier Vallat présenté par ses amis
(Paris, 1948), 116.

⁷²
Senator Léon Bérard’s negotiations for renewal of Franco-Spanish relations on February 4–6, 1939, are described in German embassy, Madrid, “Akten der deutschen Botschaft in Madrid betreffend Frankreich und Beziehungen zu Spanien,” vol. 1 (T-120/454/223634–223674). German intelligence also kept a close watch on Spanish refugees after June 1940.

⁷³
Ministère de l’Intérieur,
Bulletin officiel
, 1940, no. 10 (October 1940).

⁷⁴
Le Temps
, 25 July 1940;
Ministère public c/ Alibert; Les Procès de la collaboration
(Paris, 1948), 119. Judge André Mornet, the prosecutor of Pétain in 1945, sat on the commission. For other samples of xenophobia mixed with professional jealousy, see the complaint about the number of foreigners in the medical profession,
Revue universelle
, 10 September 1941, 344.