1775 (96 page)

37.
Marc Egnal,
A Mighty Empire
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988), p. 282.

38.
Glenn Weaver,
Jonathan Trumbull
(Hartford: Connecticut Historical Society, 1956), p. 109.

39.
Tercentenary Commission of the State of Connecticut,
Migrations from Connecticut Prior to 1800
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934), p. 19.

40.
Neuenschwander, op. cit., p. 196.

41.
Stewart Holbrook,
Ethan Allen
(Portland, Ore.: Binford & Mort, 1988), p. 133.

42.
Richard T. Warfle,
Connecticut’s Western Colony: The Susquehannah Affair
(Hartford, Conn.: American Revolution Bicentennial Commission, 1979), pp. 32–40.

43.
Thomas Abernethy,
Western Lands and the American Revolution
(New York: Russell & Russell, 1959), p. 2.

44.
For Virginia’s list of land companies, see ibid., pp. 1–145.

45.
Joel Aschenbach,
The Grand Idea: George Washington’s Potomac and the Race to the West
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004), pp. 123–24, 41–42.

46.
Thomas J. Wertenbaker,
Torchbearer of the Revolution
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1940), p. 211.

47.
Edgar, op. cit., pp. 1-3, 39.

48.
Ibid., pp. 36–49, 83–85; George C. Rogers, Jr.,
Charleston in the Age of the Pinckneys
(Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1980), p. 4.

49.
Edgar, op. cit., p. 37.

50.
Alice Hanson Jones,
Wealth of a Nation to Be: The American Colonies on the Eve of Revolution
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1980), pp. 10, 170–71, and 377–79), cited by Edgar, op. cit., p. 152.

51.
George Frakes,
Laboratory for Liberty
(Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1970), p. 10.

52.
Ibid., pp. 88–89.

53.
William Dabney and Marion Dargan,
William Henry Drayton and the American Revolution
(Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1962), p. 82.

54.
Ibid., p. 130–31.

55.
Joanne Calhoun,
The Circular Church: Three Centuries of Charleston History
(Charleston, S.C.: History Press, 2008), pp. 138–71.

56.
Dabney and Dargan, op. cit., p. 15.

Chapter 3: Religion, Ethnicity, and Revolutionary Loyalty

1.
John Rogasta,
Wellspring of Liberty
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 87–107.

2.
Henry S. Commager and Richard Morris,
The Spirit of Seventy-six
(New York: Harper & Row, 1967), p. 267.

3.
Brendan Simms,
Three Victories and a Defeat
(New York: Basic Books, 2007), pp. 595–96.

4.
Ibid., pp. 341–42, 417–18.

5.
George O. Trevelyan,
The American Revolution
(Cranbury, N.J.: Scholar’s Bookshelf, 2006), vol. 1, p. 50.

6.
Bernard Bailyn and Philip Morgan, eds.,
Strangers Within the Realm
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), p. 310.

7.
Charles Glatfelter,
Pastors and People
(Breinigsville: Pennsylvania German Society, 1980), p. 310.

8.
Pauline Maier,
American Scripture
(New York: Knopf, 1997), pp. 140, 240–41.

9.
Paul A. Wallace,
The Muhlenbergs of Pennsylvania
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1950), p. 107.

10.
For a slightly different set of estimates, see Bailyn and Morgan, op cit., p. 244.

11.
Wallace, op. cit., pp. 110–13.

12.
Ibid., pp. 116–18.

13.
Patricia Bonomi,
Under the Cope of Heaven
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), p.187.

14.
See, for example, Alan Heimert,
Religion in the American Mind
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966), and Nathan O. Hatch,
The Democratization of American Christianity
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), and for an overview, Mark A. Noll,
The Rise of Evangelicalism
(Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2003).

15.
William G. McLoughlin,
Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), p. xiv.

16.
Ruth Bloch, “Religion and Ideological Change in the American Revolution,” in Mark A. Noll, ed.,
Religion and American Politics
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1990
),
p. 53.

17.
Martin Marty,
Righteous Empire: The Protestant Experience in America
(New York: Dial Press, 1970), pp. 16–17.

18.
Ibid., p. 49.

19.
Bonomi, op. cit., p. 9.

20.
Odd as it may seem initially, there was a huge difference between Anglicans in Virginia and South Carolina and those from Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. The former had dominated their colonies for a century, were doctrinally easygoing and low-church, strongly opposed the notion of bishops being sent from England, and in 1775 solid majorities favored Patriot politics and the Revolution. The Anglican 10 percent of the churchgoing populations in western Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey, by contrast, represented a later-eighteenth-century growth pattern and an assertive politics. In New York, Anglicanism was established in four counties—New York, Queens, Richmond,
and Westchester—and its clergy were closely allied with royal governors. Since the 1760s, the Anglican clergy in the three provinces, most of them royalist and high church in sentiment, had been been working with one another and with the London-based Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG) to persuade the British government to send bishops to promote the Church of England in America. This put them strongly at odds with the Congregationalists in Connecticut and the Presbyterians in New York and New Jersey who led local Revolutionary sentiment. Precise measurements do not exist, but one analysis found that in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut, 52 Anglican clergymen were Loyalists while only three were Patriots. Another fourteen were neutrals. Nancy L. Rhoden,
Revolutionary Anglicanism: The Colonial Church of England Clergy During the American Revolution
(New York: New York University Press, 1999), p. 89. As for their parishioners, among rank-and-file Anglicans in New Jersey, New York, and Connecticut, Loyalists probably outnumbered Patriots by three to one. Pennsylvania was something of a transition zone, where a significant Anglican minority (probably 25 to 35 percent) took the Patriot side.

21.
Randall Balmer,
A Perfect Babel of Confusion
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 119–20 and 137–43.

22.
Bonomi, op. cit., p. 175; Alan W. Tully, “Ethnicity, Religion, and Politics in Early America,”
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,
vol. CVII, 1983, pp. 503–4.

23.
James B. Bell,
A War of Religion: Dissenters, Anglicans and the American Revolution
(London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), p. 76.

24.
There is no need to debate whether New York and Pennsylvania circa 1775 were already gestating America’s first political parties. The question here is more confined: were ethnicity and religion emerging as the leading shapers of politics and Patriot versus Loyalist loyalties in the thirteen colonies? Evidence seems especially strong in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, which had higher ratios of non-British inhabitants than the other ten colonies, as well as eleven to fifteen religious denominations. This pluralism, far from muting cultural differences, stimulated an active politics aimed at both self-protection and aggrandizement. Benjamin H. Newcomb,
Political Partisanship in the American Middle Colonies, 1700–1776
(Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1995), p. 4. Politics took further religious coloration during the quarter century before the Revolution by controversies over Quaker domination in Pennsylvania, and in New York by resentment of the favoritism to Anglicans based on the Anglican church’s four-county establishment. Alan Tully,
Forming American Politics: Ideals, Interests and Institutions in Colonial New York and Pennsylvania
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1994), p. 424. Between 1769 and 1772, imperial issues played a growing role, which intensified religious divisions because both the Pennsylvania Quakers and the New York Anglicans were unable to manage or straddle this agenda, and by 1775 new alignments were taking shape, pushing a new credo to the fore. Presbyterians were the leading denomination in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York, accounting for 20 to 30 percent of the churchgoing population, and they dominated the early Revolution in all three provinces. Charles Inglis, a Loyalist Anglican rector in New York, stated that he did not know a single Presbyterian minister in the synod of New York and Philadelphia who was not an active Whig. Leonard J. Kramer, “Muskets in the Pulpit,”
Journal of Presbyterian History 31,
December 1953, p. 231. Anglicans and Quakers were the biggest losers. One study offering an ethnic-religious interpretation of the Revolution in Pennsylvania captured the 1775–1777 upheaval: “Before the separation from England, the Quakers and Anglicans controlled 63% of the seats in the Assembly. Fifteen months after the Declaration of Independence, Presbyterians, [German] Reformed and Lutherans controlled over 90% of the seats in the Assembly…” Wayne L. Bockelman and Owen S. Ireland, “The Internal Revolution in Pennsylvania: An Ethnic-Religious Interpretation,”
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography
41, April 1974, p. 149.

25.
Richard W. Pointer,
Protestant Pluralism and the New York Experience
(Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988), pp. 54–62.

26.
John F. Woolverton,
Colonial Anglicanism
(Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1984), pp. 15, 18, and 37.

27.
Bell, op. cit., pp. 26 and 118.

28.
Bonomi, op. cit., p.170.

29.
Ibid., pp. 49 and 218.

30.
Woolverton, op. cit., p. 232.

31.
Bonomi, op. cit., p. 210.

32.
In Maryland, North Carolina, and Georgia, Anglican clerics were not as likely to support the Revolution as the Patriot-minded Anglican clergy of Virginia and South Carolina. Vestries did not match those in Virginia, and other local considerations created more Loyalist sentiment. In Maryland, for example, the proprietary Calvert family had a role in clergy selection. In any event, one tabulation is as follows: Maryland, 24 Loyalists and 22 Patriots; North Carolina, eight Loyalists and seven Patriots; and Georgia, three Loyalists and no Patriots. James B. Bell,
A War of Religion: Dissenters, Anglicans, and the American Revolution
(Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), pp. 232, 238, 240.

33.
Woolverton, op. cit., p. 123.

34.
Bonomi, op. cit., p. 201.

35.
Woolverton, op. cit., p. 29.

36.
Pointer, op. cit., p. 25.

37.
Carl Bridenbaugh,
Mitre and Sceptre
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 221.

38.
Ibid., pp. 233, 234, and 236.

39.
Ibid., pp. 246–47 and 256–57.

40.
Bonomi, pp. 206–7.

41.
Bridenbaugh, op. cit., p. 20; Bonomi, op. cit., p. 199.

42.
Bonomi, op. cit., pp. 187, 172.

43.
Ibid., pp. 202–3.

44.
Bell, op. cit., p. 167.

45.
Ibid., pp. 146–47.

46.
Ibid., p. 166.

47.
Ibid., pp. 162–164.

48.
Bonomi, op. cit., p. 96.

49.
Bell, op. cit., p. 42.

50.
Bonomi, op. cit., pp. 191–94.

51.
Bell, op cit., p. 78.

52.
Bloch, op. cit., p. 52.

53.
Ibid., p. 49.

54.
Simms, op. cit., p. 583.

55.
Ibid., p. 584.

Chapter 4: A Revolution for Economic Self-Determination

1.
Linda Colley,
Britons
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), pp. 1–9.

2.
David S. Lovejoy,
Rhode Island Politics and the American Revolution, 1760–1776
(Providence, R.I.: Brown University Press, 1958), pp. 36–37.

3.
Arthur M. Schlesinger, op. cit., pp. 607–13.

4.
Woody Holton,
Forced Founders
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 9.

5.
Erna Risch,
Supplying Washington’s Army
(Washington, D.C.: Center of U.S. Military History, 1981), p.335.

6.
Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole, eds.,
Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution
(Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishers, 1994), p. 59.

7.
Jack P. Greene,
The Quest for Power
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1963), pp. 108–109.

8.
Virginia Harrington,
The New York Merchant on the Eve of the Revolution
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1935), p. 106.

9.
John McCusker and Russell Menard,
The Economy of British America, 1607–1789
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), p. 239.

10.
Eric Robson,
The American Revolution
(London: Batchworth Press, 1955), p. 7.

11.
Jason Goodwin,
Greenback
(New York: Henry Holt. 2003), pp. 60–61.

12.
Harrington, op. cit., p. 11.

13.
T. H. Breen,
The Marketplace of Revolution
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 120.

14.
Holton, op. cit., p. 55.

15.
Jack P. Greene and Richard M. Jellison, “The Currency Act of 1764 in Imperial-Colonial Relations, 1764-1776,”
William and Mary Quarterly,
3rd sers., 18, no. 4, October 1961.