1775 (99 page)

51.
Leah Townsend,
South Carolina Baptists
(Florence, S.C.: Florence Printing Co., 1935), pp. 122–75.

52.
Hooker, ed., op. cit., pp. 112–13; Townsend, op. cit., pp. 123–24.

53.
Townsend, op. cit., p. 125.

54.
J. F. McGregor and B. Reay, eds.,
Radical Religion in the English Revolution
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 199–201.

55.
Historians agree that very few records of Separate Baptist churches in the South Carolina backcountry survived the war. Neither did many of their buildings or congregations. Most of the latter do not seem to have put themselves back together until the late 1780s or 1790s. Considerable detail on the churches and their chronological gaps can be found in Leah Townsend,
South Carolina Baptists
(Florence, S.C.: 1935),
chapters 4
–
5.
In consequence, no profile can be compiled of these churches’ antinomian characteristics during the 1760s and 1770s. When the congregations did reconstitute, Townsend noted (p. 180), “regularization was so rapid as associations gathered in the groups that the names Separate and Regular disappeared and only Baptists remained.” She added that “some of the old Separate Baptist meeting houses were in or near the scene of many [Revolutionary skirmishes]” and a curator of the South Carolina Baptist Historical Society concluded that “Baptist ranks were split between Patriots and Tories, the result being that some upcountry churches split or vanished. The guerrilla warfare in the upcountry also meant that few church records from the revolutionary war era survived.” J. Glen Clayton, “South Carolina Baptist Records,”
South Carolina Historical Magazine,
vol. 85, no. 4, 1985, p. 319. One author has catalogued some of the Baptist churches that became battlegrounds or were nearby. Daniel W. Barefoot,
Touring South Carolina’s Revolutionary War Sites
(Winston-Salem, N.C.: John F. Blair Publishers, 1999).

56.
Divergent Presbyterian groups in Pennsylvania-settled Chester County began holding common services in 1759 and the Reverend William Richardson is credited with unifying them and naming the church in 1770. Roadside marker erected by the Chester County Historical Society, 1964.

57.
Rogers,
Richard Furman,
op. cit., p. 28.

58.
A. E. Smith,
Colonists in Bondage
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), p. 48.

59.
Ibid., pp. 118–21.

60.
Kenneth Morgan,
Slavery and Servitude in Colonial North America
(New York: New York University Press, 2000), p. 44.

61.
A. E. Smith, op. cit., p. 4.

62.
Ibid., pp. 5–7.

63.
Morgan, op. cit., p. 61.

64.
A. Roger Ekirch,
Bound for America
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), p. 116.

65.
Several books and articles have elaborated on these plans and possibilities. Among the more notable are George W. Kyte, “Some Plans for a Loyalist Stronghold in the Middle Colonies,”
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography,
vol. 16, no. 3, July 1949, pp. 177–90, and Carl Van Doren,
A Secret History of the Revolution
(New York: Viking, 1941).

66.
Don Jordan and Michael Walsh,
White Cargo
(New York: New York University Press, 2007), p. 259.

67.
Hatley, op. cit., p. 184.

68.
Smith, op. cit., p. 259.

69.
Ekirch,
Bound for America,
op. cit., p. 193.

Chapter 7: The Ideologies of Revolution

1.
The thesis held by several historians that support for the Revolution was strongest in areas where long-settled populations were of English descent clearly has some validity because the old-settled and heavily English colonies of populous New England and Virginia were in the vanguard of the Revolution. On the other hand, proponents—Canadian Willam Nelson, British military historian Piers Mackesy, and others—tend to overlook the exceptions. In Massachusetts, Patriot support was softer in the old Plymouth colony district; Anglican populations of English descent in southwestern Connecticut, lower New York, and New Jersey were substantially Loyalist; so were the
long-settled and largely English Quaker populations in and around Philadelphia, western New Jersey, and Nantucket. Many poor whites and watermen of English descent in southern Delaware and the Eastern Shore sections of Maryland and Virginia were Loyalists. The idea of “Englishness” per se being critical has to be qualified.

2.
In 1860, parts of New England gave surprising support to the presidential candidates who were pro-southern (nominee John Breckinridge) or in favor of compromise and peace (Constitutional Union nominee John Bell). Many Massachusetts cotton manufacturers opposed a war. Boston gave Bell, whose running mate Edward Everett was a prominent “Cotton Whig,” a quarter of its vote. In southwestern Connecticut, where Anglican Loyalism had been substantial in 1775, about a third of the vote was cast for Breckinridge and Bell. Local industries made carriages for the South, and Episcopalians leaned Democratic in response to the Congregationalist or evangelical Republicans. For more detail, see Kevin Phillips,
The Cousins’ Wars
(New York: Basic Books, 1999), pp. 423–25.

3.
Bernard Bailyn,
The Origins of American Politics
(New York: Vintage Books, 1970), pp. ix and x.

4.
Carl Bridenbaugh,
The Spirit of ’76: The Growth of American Patriotism Before Independence, 1607–1776
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1975), pp. vii, 4–7.

5.
Ibid., p. 89.

6.
During the mid-to-late 1760s, Stiles and several middle-colony Presbyterian leaders worked to bring about a “Union among all the anti-Episcopal churches,” but it never took official form. See Bridenbaugh,
Mitre and Sceptre,
op. cit., pp. 270–76. While Stiles was ministering in Newport, Rhode Island, he advocated a union between the Congregationalists and Calvinist Baptists.

7.
Richard L. Merritt,
Symbols of American Community, 1735–1775
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966).

8.
Richard Koebner,
Empire
(Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1961).

9.
Albert H. Smyth, ed.,
Writings of Benjamin Franklin
(New York, 1905–7), vol. 2, pp. 205–8, sec. 22.

10.
Richard Koebner, “Two Conceptions of Empire,” in Jack Greene, ed.,
The Reinterpretation of the American Revolution, 1763–1789
(New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 121.

11.
Koehn, op. cit., p. 15.

12.
From an analysis by Frederick the Great, quoted in H.A.L. Fisher,
A History of Europe
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1939), p. 785.

13.
Louis Hacker, “The First American Revolution,”
Columbia University Quarterly
37 (1935), pp. 259–95.

14.
Koehn, op. cit., pp. 59 and 105.

15.
Ibid., p. 77.

16.
Ibid., p. 49.

17.
Ibid. For Pitt, p. 131; for Burke, pp. 59, 77, and 105; for Shelburne, pp. 23, 97; for Rockingham, p. 108; and for Grenville, p. 61.

18.
Holton, op. cit., p. 57.

19.
Barrow, op. cit., p. 248.

20.
St. George L. Sioussat, “The Breakdown of Royal Management of Lands in the Southern Provinces,”
Agricultural History
vol. 3, no. 2, April 1929, p. 7.

21.
Langford, op. cit., pp. 298–99.

22.
John Phillip Reid,
Constitutional History of the American Revolution: The Authority of Law
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), p. 167.

23.
Charles H. McIlwain,
The American Revolution: A Constitutional Interpretation
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1958) p. 118.

24.
Reid, op. cit., pp. 172–73.

25.
Ibid., pp. 163–73.

26.
John M. Murrin, “Magistrates, Sinners and Precarious Liberties,” in Hall, Murrin, and Tate, eds.,
Saints and Revolutionaries
(New York: W. W. Norton, 1984), p. 188.

27.
John Phillip Reid,
In a Defiant Stance
(University Park: Penn State University Press, 1977), pp. 21–22.

28.
Ibid., pp. 27–40 and 55–64.

29.
Bonomi, op. cit., p. 187.

30.
William Sweet,
The Story of Religion in America
(Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1973), pp. 177–78.

31.
Mark J. Larson,
Calvin’s Doctrine of the State
(Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, 2009), p. 97.

32.
N. S. McFetridge,
Calvinism in History
(1882), p. 11.

33.
John Lothrop Motley,
History of the United Netherlands
(New York: Harper & Brothers, 1861), vol. 3, p. 121; vol. 4, pp. 547–48.

34.
McFetridge, op. cit., p. 113; John Fiske,
The Beginnings of New England
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1899), p. 58.

35.
German historian Leopold von Ranke (1796–1896), is widely quoted saying that through his beliefs, “John Calvin was the virtual founder of America.” French ecclesiastical historian Jean-Henri d’Aubigné (1794–1872) called Calvin “the founder of the greatest of republics. The Pilgrims who left their country in the reign of James I…were his sons, his direct and legitimate sons; and that American nation which we have seen growing so rapidly boasts as its father the humble Reformer on the shores of Lake Leman.” D’Aubigné,
History of the Reformation in the Time of Calvin
(New York: Carter & Brothers, 1863), vol. 1, p. 5. To Dutch historian Robert Fruin (1823–1899), “In Switzerland, in France, in the Netherlands, in Scotland and in England, and wherever Protestantism has had to establish itself at the point of a sword, it was Calvinism that gained the day.” Abraham Kuyper, Stone Lectures, quoting Robert Fruin,
Tien Yares uit den Tachtigjarigen Orlag 1588-1598,
6th ed. (Den Haag, 1904), p. 217. Hippolyte Taine, a French historian of atheist belief, called the Calvinists “the true heroes of England. They founded England, in spite of the corruption of the Stuarts, by the exercise of duty, by the practice of justice, by obstinate toil, by vindication of right, by resistance to oppression…They founded Scotland; they founded the United States; at this day, they are, by their descendants, founding Australia and colonizing the world.” Loraine Boettner,
The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination,
supra. section 6, note 7. Emilio Castelar, a Catholic who in 1873 became president of the Spanish Republic, observed that “it was necessary for the republican movement that there should come a morality more austere than Luther’s, the morality of Calvin, and a Church more democratic than the German, the Church of Geneva. The Anglo-Saxon democracy has for its lineage the book of a primitive society—the Bible. It is the product of a severe theology learned by the few Christian fugitives in the gloomy cities of Holland and Switzerland, where the morose shade of Calvin still wanders.”
Calvin Memorial Addresses
(New York: General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States, 1909).

36.
Loraine Boettner,
The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination
(1932), Section VI, “Calvinism in History,” http//biblecentre.net/theology.

37.
Fiske, op. cit., p. 59.

38.
Keith Griffin,
Revolution and Religion: The American Revolution and the Reformed Clergy
(New York: Paragon House, 1994), pp. 15 and 84.

39.
Bloch, “Religion and Ideological Change,” op. cit., p. 46.

40.
Bailyn,
Origins of American Politics,
op. cit., p. 11.

41.
Bernard Bailyn,
The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 118–20.

42.
Bernard Bailyn, “The Central Themes of the American Revolution,” in Stephen G. Kurtz and James H. Dutson, eds.,
Essays on the American Revolution
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), p. 8.

43.
Bailyn,
Origins of American Politics,
op. cit., p. x.

44.
Ibid., p. 38.

45.
Bailyn, “Central Themes,” op. cit., pp. 8–9.

46.
Ibid., pp. 4, 7, 10.

47.
Bailyn,
Ideological Origins,
op. cit., pp. 94, 153.

48.
Two well-received examples are Stephen Budiansky,
Her Majesty’s Spymaster
(New York: Viking Penguin, 2005), and Alan Haynes,
The Elizabethan Secret Services
(Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton, 2000).

49.
Derek Hirst,
Authority and Conflict: England, 1603–1658
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986), pp. 184–201.

Chapter 8: Fortress New England?

1.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, “Paul Revere’s Ride, 1775” (1860).

2.
French,
First Year,
op. cit., pp. 23–24.

3.
Ibid., pp. 17–18.

4.
French,
General Gage’s Informers
(Cranbury, N.J.: Scholar’s Bookshelf, 2005), pp. 10–32.

5.
French,
First Year,
op. cit., p. 11.

6.
Peter D. G. Thomas,
Tea Party to Independence: The Third Phase of the American Revolution, 1773–1776
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp. 139, 159, 160.

7.
Charles R. Ritcheson,
British Politics and the American Revolution
(Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954), p. 195.

8.
John Prebble,
Culloden
(New York: Atheneum, 1962), pp. 245–47.

9.
Naval Documents,
op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 65–66, 69–70.

10.
Ibid., pp. 165, 167, 179, 181, 188;
Essex Gazette,
April 18, 1775; Taunton, Gerry Tuoti, “Encampment Recreates Life During Revolutionary War,”
Taunton Gazette,
August 8, 2009.