Crisis and Command: A History of Executive Power from George Washington to George W. Bush (65 page)

98
These events are described in Jerald A. Combs, The Jay Treaty: Political Battleground of the Founding Fathers (1970); Samuel Flagg Bemis, Jay's Treaty (1923); Alexander DeConde, Entangling Alliance: Politics & Diplomacy under George Washington (1958); Bradford Perkins, The First Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1795-1805 (1955); and more recently by Todd Estes, The Art of Presidential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty, 109 Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 127 (2001); and Charles Ritcheson, Aftermath of Revolution: British Policy Toward the United States, 1783-1795 (1971).

99
Elkins & McKitrick, supra note 18, at 412; McDonald, Presidency of Washington, supra note 5, at 140.

100
Phelps, supra note 1, at 174-75.

101
Writings of Washington, supra note 7, at 2-5.

102
Ibid.

103
See United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974). For critical discussion, see Akhil R. Amar, Nixon's Shadow, 83 Minnesota Law Review 1405 (1999); Michael S. Paulsen, Nixon Now: The Courts and the Presidency After Twenty-five Years, 83 Minnesota Law Review 1337 (1999). For analysis of the rise of executive privilege, see Mark J. Rozell, Executive Privilege: Presidential Power, Secrecy, and Accountability (2002); and Louis Fisher, The Politics of Executive Privilege (2003).

104
Abraham D. Sofaer, Executive Privilege: An Historical Note, 75 Columbia Law Review 1318 (1975).

105
On this point, see John Yoo, The Powers of War and Peace: The Constitution and Foreign Affairs after 9/11, at 242-43 (2005).

106
See, e.g., Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789-1829 (1984).

CHAPTER 4: THOMAS JEFFERSON

1
The two magisterial works covering the Jefferson Presidency are Dumas Malone, Jefferson The President: The First Term 1801-05 (1970) (hereinafter "Malone, First Term") and Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: The Second Term 1805-09 (1974) (hereinafter "Malone, Second Term"); and Henry Adams, History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson (1889-91) (Library of America ed., 1986). Helpful works include Joyce Appleby, Thomas Jefferson (2003); Jeremy D. Bailey, Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power (2007); Noble E. Cunningham, Jr., The Process of Government Under Jefferson (1978); Forrest McDonald, The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (1976); Robert M. Johnstone, Jr., Jefferson and the Presidency: Leadership in the Young Republic (1978); David N. Mayer, The Constitutional Thought of Thomas Jefferson (1994); Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation (1986); Ralph Ketcham, The Jefferson Presidency and Constitutional Beginnings, in Martin Fausold & Alan Shank eds., The Constitution and the American Presidency 5-27 (1991); Gary Schmitt, Thomas Jefferson and the Presidency in Thomas E. Cronin ed., Inventing the American Presidency 326 (1989); and Gary Schmitt, Jefferson and Executive Power: Revisionism and the "Revolution of 1800," 17 Publius 7 (1987).

2
First Draft of the Virginia Constitution (1776), in 1 The Papers of Thomas Jefferson 337, 341 (Julian P. Boyd ed., 1950).

3
Jefferson to Madison, Dec. 20, 1787, in 12 Ibid. at 442.

4
Jefferson to Madison, Sept. 6, 1789, in 15 Ibid. at 392, 397.

5
Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, 10 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson 140 (Paul L. Ford ed., 1904).

6
Hamilton to Bayard, Jan. 16, 1801, in 25 The Papers of Alexander Hamilton 319-24 (Harold Syrett ed., 1965).

7
Adams, supra note 1, at 354.

8
See, e.g., Sidney M. Milkis & Michael Nelson, The American Presidency: Origins & Development, 1776-1993, at 103-04 (2d ed. 1994).

9
See Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789-1829, at 106 (1984); see also Bailey, supra note 1, at 5-27; Mayer, supra note 1, at 222-56; Schmitt, supra note 1, at 326-46. Bruce Ackerman traces the rise of "presidential democracy" under Jefferson to the failure of the Electoral College system in the election of 1800 and the embrace of popular majoritarianism to support Jefferson's selection. Bruce Ackerman, The Failure of the Founding Fathers: Jefferson, Marshall, and the Rise of Presidential Democracy 245-66 (2005).

10
See Bailey, supra note 1, at 16-20; Schmitt, supra note 1, at 341-43.

11
Federalist No. 23, at 147 (Alexander Hamilton) (Jacob E. Cooke ed., 1961).

12
Bailey, supra note 1, at 15-22.

13
11 Papers of Jefferson, supra note 2, at 679.

14
McDonald, Presidency of Jefferson, supra note 1, at 36.

15
Ibid. at 34-36; see also Peterson, supra note 1, at 680; Marc Landy & Sidney Milkis, Presidential Greatness 65 (2000).

16
Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, in 10 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 141.

17
Jefferson to Abigail Adams, Sept 11, 1804, in 8 Ibid. at 310-11.

18
Jefferson to Roane, Sept. 6, 1819, in 10 Ibid. at 141.

19
Jefferson to Dickinson, Dec. 19, 1801, 10 The Writings of Thomas Jefferson 302 (Andrew A. Lipscomb ed., 1903-04).

20
Richard E. Ellis, The Jeffersonian Crisis: Courts and Politics in the Young Republic 70 (1971).

21
Quoted in McDonald, supra note 1, at 81.

22
Jefferson to Hay, June 20, 1807, in 9 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 59-60.

23
The Barbary Pirates are usefully discussed in Abraham Sofaer, War, Foreign Affairs, and Constitutional Power: The Origins 208-27 (1976); Schmitt, supra note 1, at 336-37; Gerhard Casper, Separating Power: Essays on the Founding Period 45-67 (1997); and Montgomery Kosma, Our First Real War, 2 Green Bag 2d 169 (1999).

24
The Complete Annals of Thomas Jefferson 213 (Franklin B. Sawvel ed., 1903).

25
Smith to Dale, May 20, 1801, in 1 Naval Documents Related to the United States Wars with the Barbary Powers 465 (1939).

26
Kosma, supra note 23, at 174.

27
President's Message, Dec. 8, 1801, in 7 Annals of Congress 11, 12 (Joseph Gale 2d ed., 1789).

28
Act of Feb. 6, 1802, 2 Stat 129.

29
The Examination No. 1, Dec. 17, 1801, in 25 Papers of Hamilton, supra note 6, at 444, 456.

30
See Sofaer, supra note 23, at 216-21.

31
See ibid. at 172-73; McDonald, supra note 1, at 135-37; and Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War, 1805-1812: England and the United States 142-44 (1961).

32
The events surrounding the purchase are described in Robert Tucker & David Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson 87-171 (1990); Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 239-332; and McDonald, supra note 1, at 53-73.

33
Quoted in Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 285.

34
Gary Lawson & Guy Seidman, The Constitution of Empire: Territorial Expansion and American Legal History 29 (2004).

35
Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 312.

36
Jefferson to Dickinson, Aug. 9, 1803, in 8 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 262.

37
Jefferson to Breckinridge, Aug. 12, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 242.

38
Jefferson to Breckinridge, Aug. 18, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 245; see also Jefferson to Paine, in 8 Ibid. at 245.

39
Jefferson to Nicholas, Sept. 7, 1803, in 8 Ibid. at 247.

40
See Mayer, supra note 1, at 253.

41
Jefferson to Colvin, Sept. 20, 1810, in 9 Writings of Jefferson, supra note 5, at 279.

42
Bailey, supra note 1, at 15-22; and Schmitt, supra note 1, at 343-46.

43
Quoted in Edwin Corwin, The President: Office and Powers, 1787-1984, at 18 (Randall W. Bland et al, eds., 5th ed. 1984).

44
Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States 122 (1969).

45
See Harvey Mansfield, Thomas Jefferson, in Morton Frisch & Richard Stevens eds., American Political Thought: The Philosophic Dimension of Statesmanship 49 (1983); Landy & Milkis, supra note 15, at 41-43.

46
Malone, First Term, supra note 1, at 93.

47
Mayer, supra note 1, at 236-37.

48
McDonald, Presidency of Jefferson, supra note 1, at 39; Mayer, supra note 1, at 238.

49
See Casper, supra note 23, at 80-83.

50
Tucker & Hendrickson, supra note 32, at 14-17.

51
Ibid. at 18-21.

52
Quoted in Ibid. at 190.

53
Gallatin to Jefferson, Dec. 18, 1807, quoted in Malone, Second Term, supra note 1, at 482.

54
1 Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: 1789-1897, at 422-24 (James D. Richardson ed., 1900); and 2 Stat. 451 (Dec. 22, 1807).

55
2 Stat. 453 (Jan. 9, 1808).

56
2 Stat. 473 (Mar. 12, 1808).

57
2 Stat. 499 (Apr. 25, 1808).

58
Quoted in Leonard Levy, Jefferson and Civil Liberties: The Darker Side (1989).

59
Insurrection Act of 1807, ch. 39, 2 Stat. 443.

60
Leonard White, Jeffersonians: A Study in Administrative History, 1801-29, at 451 (1951).

61
Quoted in Ibid. at 461.

62
2 Stat. 506 (Jan. 9, 1809).

63
Levy, supra note 58, at 120.

64
Garry Wills, James Madison 5-7 (2002). Wills's opinion is not universally shared, of course. For more positive biographies of Madison, see Irving Brant, James Madison: The President, 1809-1812 (1956); Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (1971); Drew N. McCoy, The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (1991); Jack N. Rakove, James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic (1990); Robert Rutland, The Presidency of James Madison (1990); and Robert Rutland, James Madison: The Founding Father (1987). For an interesting perspective on whether Madison's interest in political theory interfered with his ability to succeed as a president, see David J. Siemers, Theories About Theory: Theory-Based Claims about Presidential Performance from the Case of James Madison, 38 Pres. Studies Q. 78 (2007).

65
Perkins, supra note 31, at 223-60.

66
Rakove, supra note 64, at 151.

67
Walter LaFeber, The American Age: U.S. Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 1750 to the Present 60-61 (1994).

68
Third Annual Message, Nov. 5, 1811, in 1 Papers of the Presidents, supra note 54, at 491, 494 (James D. Richardson ed., 1900).

69
Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict 29-37 (1990); LaFeber, supra note 67, at 63.

70
Hickey, supra note 69, at 72-99, 126-58, 182-254.

71
J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783-1830 (1983), provides a good historical account of the war.

72
Rutland, Presidency of Madison, supra note 64, at 110.

CHAPTER 5: ANDREW JACKSON

1
I have drawn on the wealth of Jackson histories in writing this article. Jackson's larger than life personality has made him the subject of several excellent works. Our generation's leading Jackson biographer, Robert V. Remini, provides great detail on Jackson's life in three volumes. Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson (1977-84) (hereinafter "Remini, Jackson"). Other helpful works include Gerard N. Magliocca, Andrew Jackson and the Constitution: The Rise and Fall of Generational Regimes (2007); H. W. Brands, Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times (2006); Sean Wilentz, Andrew Jackson (2005); and Donald B. Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (1993). Our leading history of the Jacksonian period is Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815-1848 (2007). Older works, such as Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson (1945), are less helpful in portraying Jackson as a proto-FDR and Jacksonian Democracy as a precursor for the New Deal.