Crisis and Command: A History of Executive Power from George Washington to George W. Bush (69 page)

20
Home Building & Loan Ass'n v. Blaisdell, 290 U.S. 398 (1934); Nebbia v. New York, 291 U.S. 502 (1934).

21
Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U.S. 388 (1935).

22
U.S. 495 (1935).

23
Ibid. at 528.

24
Franklin D. Roosevelt, The 209th Press Conference (May 31, 1935), in 4 The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1935, at 221 (1938).

25
Ibid.

26
William Leuchtenburg, The Origins of Franklin D. Roosevelt's "Court-Packing" Plan, 1966 Supreme Court Review 347, 351-54 (hereinafter "Leuchtenburg, Court-Packing").

27
Norman v. B. & O. R.R., 294 U.S. 240 (1935).

28
297 U.S. 1 (1936).

29
298 U.S. 238 (1936).

30
298 U.S. 1 (1936).

31
298 U.S. 587 (1936).

32
81 Cong. Rec. 878 (1937) (reprinting FDR's message to Congress).

33
Ibid.

34
Barry Cushman, Rethinking the New Deal Court, 80 Virginia Law Review 201, (1994).

35
Ibid. at 214-15.

36
Ibid. at 221.

37
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937).

38
NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1 (1937); NLRB v. Fruehauf Trailer Co., 301 U.S. 49 (1937); NLRB v. Friedman-Harry Marks Clothing Co., 301 U.S. 58 (1937); and Associated Press v. NLRB, 301 U.S. 103 (1937); and Washington, Virginia & Maryland Coach Co. v. NLRB, 301 U.S. 142 (1937).

39
3 01 U.S. 1, 41 (1937).

40
Cushman, supra note 34, at 222-23.

41
See, e.g., Steward Machine Co. v. Davis, 301 U.S. 548 (1937); and Helvering v. Davis, 301 U.S. 619 (1937).

42
See, e.g., Joseph Alsop & Turner Catledge, The 168 Days (1938); and Merlo Pusey, The Supreme Court Crisis (1937).

43
1 Bruce Ackerman, We the People: Foundations 105-30 (1991).

44
See generally Cushman, supra note 1.

45
See, e.g., United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. 100 (1941).

46
See, e.g., David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1980); Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities 1877-1920 (1982); Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (1966).

47
Marc Landy & Sidney Milkis, Presidential Greatness 153-54 (2000).

48
Burns, Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox, supra note 1, at 174.

49
Ibid. at 150.

50
Christopher Yoo, Steven Calabresi & Laurence Nee, The Unitary Executive During the Third Half-Century, 1889-1945, 80 Notre Dame Law Review 1, 83-84 (2004).

51
The classic work on the origins of the independent agencies remains Robert E. Cushman, The Independent Regulatory Commissions (1941). For more recent analyses, see Geoffrey P. Miller, Independent Agencies, 1986 Supreme Court Review 41; Peter L. Strauss, The Place of Agencies in Government: Separation of Powers and the Fourth Branch, 84 Columbia Law Review 573 (1984); and Paul R. Verkuil, The Status of Independent Agencies after Bowsher v. Synar, 1986 Duke Law Journal 779.

52
Steven G. Calabresi & Christopher S. Yoo, The Unitary Executive: Presidential Power from Washington to Bush 284-88 (2008).

53
Humphrey's Executor v. United States, 295 U.S. 602, 620 (1935).

54
Yoo, Calabresi & Nee, supra note 50, at 85.

55
Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52, 117 (1926).

56
Humphrey's Executor, 295 U.S. 602, 629 (1935).

57
See, e.g., Morrison v. Olson, 529 U.S. 654 (1988); and Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S. 361 (1989).

58
Compare Hadley Arkes, The Return of George Sutherland (1997).

59
Yoo, Calabresi & Nee, supra note 50, at 88-89.

60
The federal courts upheld FDR's decision, ultimately holding that Congress had failed to clearly prevent the President from firing on other grounds in addition to criteria it listed. See Morgan v. TVA, 28 F. Supp. 732 (E.D. Tenn. 1939), aff'd, 115 F.2d 990 (6th Cir. 1940); and Yoo, Calabresi & Nee, supra note 50, at 89-90.

61
See Peri Arnold, Making the Managerial Presidency: Comprehensive Reorganization Planning, 1905-1996, at 103-17 (1986).

62
See Matthew Dickinson, Bitter Harvest: FDR, Presidential Power, and the Growth of the Presidential Branch 104-10 (1996).

63
Arnold, supra note 61, at 103-17.

64
Dickinson, supra note 62, at 111.

65
Leuchtenburg, supra note 1, at 277-80.

66
See, e.g., Christopher C. DeMuth & Douglas H. Ginsburg, White House Review of Agency Decisionmaking, 99 Harvard Law Review 1075 (1986); Alan B. Morrison, OMB Interference with Agency Rulemaking: The Wrong Way to Write a Regulation, 99 Harvard Law Review 1059 (1986); Terry Eastland, Energy in the Executive: The Case for the Strong Presidency 163 (1992); and Elena Kagan, Presidential Administration, 114 Harvard Law Review 1075, 2245 (2001).

67
On the way that Presidents today manage policy development through the White House and the Executive Office of the President, see Andrew Rudalevige, Managing the President's Program: Presidential Leadership and Legislative Policy Formation 18-62 (2002).

68
United States v. Lovett, 328 U.S. 303 (1946).

69
Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).

70
Exec. Order No. 8802, 6 Fed. Reg. 3109 (June 25, 1941).

71
Exec. Order No. 9346, 8 Fed. Reg. 7183 (May 27, 1943).

72
See, e.g., Barry D. Karl, Constitution and Central Planning: The Third New Deal Revisited, 1988 Supreme Court Review 163, 188; Peter Evans et al. eds., Bringing the State Back In (1985); and Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (1995).

73
For a more extensive discussion of the transformation of American politics wrought by the New Deal, see Milkis, supra note 1, at 21-51, 149-183; and Theodore J. Lowi, The End of Liberalism: The Second Republic of the United States (2d ed. 1979).

74
Important historical works on FDR and American entry into World War II include Robert Dallek, Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-45 (1979); Robert Divine, The Illusion of Neutrality (1962); Waldo Heinrichs, Threshold of War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Entry into World War II (1988); Patrick Hearden, Roosevelt Confronts Hitler: America's Entry into World War II (1987); Warren Kimball, The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as Wartime Statesman (1991); Frederick W. Marks III, Wind Over Sand: The Diplomacy of Franklin Roosevelt (1988); David Reynolds, The Creation of the Anglo-American Alliance, 1937-1941: A Study in Competitive Co-operation (1982); and Akira Iriye, The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific (1987). The day-to-day events of American entry into World War II are traced in William Langer & S. Everett Gleason, The Undeclared War: 1940-1941 (1953), and the events leading up to World War II are described in Donald C. Watt, How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939 (1990); and John Keegan, The Second World War (2005). U.S. diplomacy in the war itself is discussed by Akira Iriye, The Globalizing of America, 1913-1945 (1995).

75
For a summary of the debates, see Gordon Prange, et al., At Dawn We Slept (2001).

76
See Marc Trachtenberg, The Craft of International History: A Guide to Method 79-139 (2006).

77
See, e.g., Marks, supra note 74, at 163.

78
Arkes, supra note 58.

79
299 U.S. 304 (1936).

80
Curtiss-Wright, Our History, available at
www.curtisswright.com/history.asp
.

81
Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 U.S. at 318. Scholars have not been kind to Justice Sutherland's analysis. For critical discussion of Curtiss-Wright, see David M. Levitan, The Foreign Relations Power: An Analysis of Mr. Justice Sutherland's Theory, 55 Yale Law Journal 467 (1946); Charles A. Lofgren, United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.: An Historical Reassessment, 83 Yale Law Journal 1 (1973); and Louis Henkin, Foreign Affairs and the Constitution 19-20 (2d ed. 1996).

82
United States v. Belmont, 301 U.S. 324, 331 (1937). See also Michael D. Ramsey, Executive Agreements and the (Non)Treaty Power, 77 North Carolina Law Review 133 (1998); and Joel R. Paul, The Geopolitical Constitution: Executive Expediency and Executive Agreements, 86 California Law Review 671 (1998).

83
Congressional Research Service, Treaties and Other International Agreements: The Role of the United States Senate, S. Prt. 106-71, 106th Cong., 2d Sess. 39 (2001).

84
Dames & Moore v. Regan, 453 U.S. 654 (1981) (Iranian hostages); American Insurance Association v. Garamendi, 539 U.S. 396 (2003) (Holocaust-survivor claims).

85
Dallek, supra note 74, at 102.

86
See, e.g., Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America's Foreign Policy from Its Earliest Days to the Dawn of the Twentieth Century (2007); and John Lewis Gaddis, Surprise, Security, and the American Experience (2005).

87
Trachtenberg, supra note 76, at 118.

88
Ibid. at 118-19.

89
Fireside Chat 16: On the Arsenal of Democracy, Dec. 29, 1940, at
//millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches/detail/3319
.

90
Dallek, supra note 74, at 267.

91
Ibid. at 109.

92
Neutrality Act of 1935, ch. 837, 49 Stat. 1081 (1935).

93
Dallek, supra note 74, at 110.

94
Neutrality Act of 1936, ch. 106, 49 Stat. 1152 (1936).

95
Neutrality Act of 1937, ch. 146, 50 Stat. 121 (1937).

96
Dallek, supra note 74, at 285.

97
Neutrality Act of 1939, ch. 2, 54 Stat. 4 (1939).

98
Aaron X. Fellmeth, A Divorce Waiting to Happen: Franklin Roosevelt and the Law of Neutrality, 1935-1941, 3 Buff. J. Int'l L. 414, 451 (1996-97).

99
Ibid. at 457.

100
Dallek, supra note 74, at 190.

101
Ibid. at 222.

102
Fellmeth, supra note 98, at 464.

103
Dallek, supra note 74, at 221-22.

104
Address at University of Virginia, June 10, 1940, in The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt 1940, at 259, 261-62 (Samuel I. Rosenman ed., 1941).

105
Dallek, supra note 74, at 232.

106
Ibid. at 243.

107
Ibid.

108
Fellmeth, supra note 98, at 467-68.

109
Act of June 28, 1940, SS 14, 54 Stat. 676, 681 (1940); and Espionage Act of 1917, ch. 30, 40 Stat. 222 (1917).

110
Dallek, supra note 74, at 244.

111
Fellmeth, supra note 98, at 476-78.

112
Acquisition of Naval and Air Bases in Exchange for Over-Age Destroyers, 39 Opp. Atty'y Gen. 484, reprinted in H. Jefferson Powell ed., The Constitution and the Attorneys General 307, 308 (1999).

113
Training of British Flying Students in the United States, 40 Op. Att'y Gen. 58 (May 23, 1941), reprinted in Ibid. at 316, 317.