Early Dynastic Egypt (50 page)

The Step Pyramid complex of Netjerikhet

Rather than being a sudden and dramatic innovation, the Step Pyramid complex is more easily understood as the culmination of a long tradition of funerary monuments (Kaiser 1969:6). Features which remained constant from the reign of Djer in the early First Dynasty include a large enclosed rectangular courtyard with perhaps one permanent building and other temporary structures of wood posts and matting (Kaiser 1969:16). It is just such lightweight structures that are replicated in the Step Pyramid complex, but this time in stone, built for eternity. The amalgamation of tomb and funerary enclosure represents the most important innovation of Netjerikhet’s complex (Kaiser 1969:16). The Abydos tradition of royal mortuary complexes seems to have had a greater influence on the architecture of the Step Pyramid complex than the design of the nearby Second Dynasty royal tombs (Kaiser 1992:188–9), although the influence of the Memphite tradition is difficult to gauge without a more accurate knowledge of the monuments concerned. The plan of the Step Pyramid’s subterranean galleries—which radiate out from each side of the burial chamber and thus surround it—was followed in subsequent

Third Dynasty step pyramids: both Sekhemkhet’s step pyramid and the step pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan have corridors of store-rooms which branch off the main axis before the burial chamber and encircle it on three sides (Roth 1993:44; for plans of both substructures, see Lauer 1962:210, fig. 58). The Step Pyramid complex is just that: a combination of many distinct elements (Lauer 1962: pl. 13), each of which must have had its own symbolism and significance. The lack of contemporary figured or written evidence ‘confronts us with a major problem of interpretation’ (Kemp 1989:55); we depend upon earlier and later parallels, especially the funerary enclosures at Abydos, and upon later written sources such as the Pyramid Texts.

THE COMPONENTS OF THE COMPLEX

The complex comprises two principal types of structure: largely dummy buildings, and buildings with ‘working’ interiors. The difference between the two types of building may reflect either a chronological or a functional distinction (Kaiser 1969 and Lauer 1988, respectively). If the latter, the dummy buildings may have been intended as primarily symbolic, whereas the functional buildings may have been designed for the funeral ceremonies and for the celebration of the king’s mortuary cult.

The most prominent feature of the entire complex is the Step Pyramid which covers the burial chamber in the centre of the enclosure. Initially, however, the tomb was covered by a simple mastaba (M
₁
). This preliminary stage has been attributed to Netjerikhet’s presumed predecessor, Sanakht (Lauer 1957:164); this theory is now disproved by the recent discoveries at Abydos which confirm that Netjerikhet succeeded Khasekhemwy as king. Outside the limits of the mastaba, to the east, lay the galleries which seem to have been intended for the burial of other members of the royal family. The change from a mastaba superstructure to a step pyramid represented a complete change of plan. Construction in horizontal layers of stone was replaced by angled courses of masonry for greater stability, directing the stress inwards towards the centre of the monument. This building technique became the standard one for Third Dynasty step pyramids. At first, a pyramid of four steps (P
₁
) was built over and around the original mastaba. Subsequently, in a third major change of plan, the pyramid was enlarged to the north and west, and converted into a six-stepped construction (P
₂
) (Lauer 1988:6–7). The substructure of the Step Pyramid combines two different elements: galleries approached from above via shafts, and rooms approached from the end via a staircase or sloping corridor (Firth and Quibell 1935, II: pl. 23; Lauer 1962: pl. 14b). These may have drawn upon two different traditions, exemplified in the First and Second Dynasty royal tombs at Saqqara and Abydos respectively (Kaiser 1992:176–85).

Like the pyramid, the entrance colonnade seems to have been built in stages. The earliest section seems to be the small shrine with a niched façade to the south of the main corridor. It has been suggested that the statue base of Netjerikhet bearing the name and titles of Imhotep, discovered south of the southern enclosure wall, was originally dedicated in this shrine (Helck 1972:97). The shrine may be compared with the small building immediately inside the gateway of the Shunet ez-Zebib and the corresponding building inside Peribsen’s funerary enclosure (Kaiser 1969:9). A theory based upon later religious rituals holds that the shrine was the building in which kingship was passed to

the next ruler by his deceased predecessor (or the assembly of royal ancestors) manifest as a white baboon, the
h -wr
(Helck 1972:97).

The ‘Great Court’ which extends in front of the pyramid to the south seems likely to have replicated a standard element in the Egyptian royal palace: a formal setting for the ‘appearance of the king’ in which he might take part in important ceremonies, such as the reception of tribute (Kemp 1989:57–9). A platform at the northern end of the court, against the base of the Step Pyramid (Kemp 1989:58, fig. 19A), may represent the elevated dais where the king would appear enthroned on the occasion of his ritual appearances and to review the prisoners and booty from foreign campaigns, as depicted, for example, on the Narmer macehead.

A second, smaller courtyard occupies the eastern side of the complex. Dummy shrines line both sides of the court, and a temple (named ‘Temple T’) lies to the west. The key to understanding this element of the complex is a throne platform with a double staircase in the south of the court. Depicted in First Dynasty inscriptions and later temple reliefs, such a platform was intimately associated with the Sed-festival. Indeed, it became the hieroglyphic determinative for the expression
hb-sd,
‘Sed-festival’. This festival has been discussed in Chapter 6. Clearly, the second or ‘Sed-festival court’ was designed for the eternal celebration of this pre-eminent festival of kingship (Kemp 1989:61–2). It is unlikely that it was ever used for a real Sed-festival during the king’s lifetime (cf. Lauer 1988:10) since most of the buildings are dummy constructions, filled with rubble.

One of the least understood elements of the complex is the second, miniature tomb built within the southern enclosure wall (Kemp 1989:55). Designated the ‘South Tomb’, there is no general consensus on its purpose or symbolism. Parallels have been drawn between the South Tomb and the small satellite pyramids associated with Old Kingdom royal tombs (Lauer 1968:98; Lehner and Lacovara 1985:174). The most plausible explanation is that the South Tomb housed the king’s
ka
-statue (H.Altenmüller 1972:3). Certainly, the ‘burial chamber’ beneath the South Tomb is too small to have contained a coffin of normal proportions. A survey of royal burials from the Early Dynastic period to the New Kingdom suggests that two separate chambers—one for the king’s body, the other for his
ka
—was the usual arrangement (H.Altenmüller 1972:5–6). Support for this hypothesis may be provided by a dismantled canopy-frame found in association with the satellite pyramid of Khafra at Giza. It may be compared with the wooden bier ‘found in the T-shaped magazine off the south side of the entrance corridor’ of Netjerikhet’s South Tomb (Lehner and Lacovara 1985:174).

Two of the most enigmatic parts of the Step Pyramid complex seem to have been incorporated into the final design at a relatively late stage: the North Court and the so- called ‘Western Massif. The precise purpose of the North Court is difficult to establish, as much of it was left unfinished (H.Altenmüller 1972:7). One scholar has suggested that the North Court was probably not intended as an open court at all, but rather as a spoil- dump for the adjacent constructions, levelled to form a platform (Lauer 1936:186). Because it belongs to a later phase in the development of the complex, parallels for its distinctive features have been sought, perhaps misguidedly, in the royal mortuary complexes of the Old Kingdom, rather than in those of the First and Second Dynasties. The strong connection between the royal mortuary cult and the solar cult in the Fifth Dynasty, and the suggestive location of Userkafs pyramid and mortuary temple next to the North Court, is thought by some to be significant for the interpretation of this element

of the Step Pyramid complex (H.Altenmüller 1972:8–9). In particular, the large platform in the North Court has been interpreted as an early solar platform (H.Altenmüller 1972; Brinks 1979). However, this hypothesis has been firmly rejected by other scholars (for example, Stadelmann 1983:375). More plausibly, the platform may have been a large altar for the presentation of offerings (Stadelmann 1983:375–6; Lauer 1988:8). It may be no coincidence that subterranean store-rooms nearby were found to contain supplies of grain and fruit which might have been intended as offerings. In addition, two rows of poorly built, dummy granaries stood close to the northern enclosure wall. Though ‘absurdly narrow’ for working granaries (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:77), they may have been symbolically connected with the North Court platform. A series of galleries beneath the North Court poses further problems of interpretation. The chambers that were found to be ankle-deep in dried fruit and grain (Firth and Quibell 1935, I: v) also yielded seal- impressions of Khasekhemwy and Netjerikhet (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:141, figs 22, 19– 21 respectively). A sealing of Sanakht is mentioned as coming from the same location (Firth and Quibell 1935, I: 8), but this may be a mistake since no further discussion or illustration of the sealing appears. The galleries were divided in two by a small blocking wall, and it was on the face of this wall that the seal-impressions were discovered. Access to the galleries was via two shafts (Lauer 1936:184, fig. 208). The galleries have no direct relation with the magazines built over them during the last, unfinished phase of the Step Pyramid complex. They could easily have belonged to an earlier (Second Dynasty), unfinished gallery tomb (Stadelmann 1985:303). A further set of subterranean galleries in the north-west quarter of the North Court comprises four parallel descending corridors which give access to a long, transverse gallery, off which open further chambers (Lauer 1936:186). The complex may represent another abandoned tomb of the Second Dynasty. Here Mariette found a travertine offering-table, decorated with lions’ heads (Cairo Museum
Catalogue Générale
1322), although the galleries are unlikely to have been the object’s original location. It may have been moved from a nearby temple or offering- place (Firth and Quibell 1935, I: 77). The quality of workmanship suggests that it may have stood in a royal mortuary temple (Stadelmann 1985:303), strengthening the case for the existence of Second Dynasty royal tombs in the vicinity. The mudbrick remains found under the Western Massif may have been part of such a mortuary temple (Stadelmann 1985:303). In addition to these two sets of underground chambers, the North Court contains three unfinished stairway tombs of the Third Dynasty which were probably begun before the extension of the Step Pyramid complex northwards, then abandoned after the incorporation of the North Court (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:77).

As its name suggests, the Western Massif occupies almost the entire western side of the Step Pyramid complex. It comprises three conjoined sections, two outer flat-topped structures (I and III) and a central, arched section (II). With its distinctive superstructure and underground galleries (Lauer 1936:182, fig. 206, 1962: pl. 14b), the Western Massif seems to form a single, planned building, earlier than the Step Pyramid itself (Stadelmann 1985:300–1). The initial excavators of the Step Pyramid complex describe the ‘elaborate underground galleries’ beneath the Western Massif, with ‘smaller galleries or chambers at right angles, cut in the soft rock’ (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:17, 71). The similarity to mastaba substructures of the Second and Third Dynasties was noted (Firth and Quibell 1935,1:71). The entrance to the underground galleries lies to the north. From a descending shaft, further, perpendicular shafts lead directly to the main, central gallery.

This, in turn, is linked to two outer galleries by cross-passages. In plan, therefore, the galleries bear a close resemblance to the Hetepsekhemwy galleries. The burial chamber, if there was one, is likely to have lain at the south-west corner of the monument, now inaccessible. Large numbers of stone vessels, apparently uninscribed, were found in the galleries, especially the southern part (Firth and Quibell 1935, I: 17). The dangerous condition of the galleries may have prevented their full exploration (Stadelmann 1985:302). It is, perhaps, surprising that no seal-impressions were found in the galleries. This could be due to their incomplete exploration, but it is also noteworthy that only a few sealings of Netjerikhet were found in the galleries beneath the Step Pyramid (Stadelmann 1985:302). It is tempting to see in the Western Massif another Second Dynasty royal tomb, later incorporated by Netjerikhet into his grand plan. In the same way, the superstructures of the Hetepsekhemwy and Ninetjer tombs may well have been ‘casualties of Djoser’s construction work to the north, since any but the most minimal superstructure…would have interfered with the construction of his massive enclosure wall’. The presence of large numbers of stone vessels inscribed for Hetepsekhemwy (17) and Ninetjer (13) amongst the funerary provisions of the Step Pyramid complex suggests that ‘Djoser apparently had special access to the possessions of these earlier kings’. This would be easily explained if Netjerikhet swept away the superstructures of their tombs and ‘appropriated the contents’ (Roth 1993:48, n. 49). (Since the name of Djer occurs on 13 vessels, often associated with a building called
smr-n rw,
it is possible that this institution, too, lay in the vicinity and ‘fell victim to Djoser’s workmen’ [Roth 1993:48, n. 49].)