Red Fortress: History and Illusion in the Kremlin (74 page)

86
. Posokhin,
Pamiatniki arkhitektury,
pp. 350–51 and (on foreign trade) p. 360.

87
. This argument is forcibly put by Marshall Poe. See his
Russian Moment,
p. 44. On backwardness more generally, the most famous essay (to which Poe’s is a partial rejoinder) is Alexander Gerschenkron’s,
Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective
(Cambridge, Mass., 1962). The star fort, or
trace Italienne,
is discussed in Parker, ‘“Military Revolution”’, pp. 204–5.

88
. Ryszard Kapuscinski,
Travels with Herodotus
(London, 2007), p. 59.

3 THE GOLDEN PALACE

1
.
Travels to Tana and Persia by Josafa Barbaro and Ambrogio Contarini,
trans., W. Thomas et al. (London, 1873), p. 162.

2
. Lloyd E. Berry and Robert O. Crummey, eds.,
Rude and Barbarous Kingdom
(Madison, Wisc., 1968), pp. 55–6; see also Michael Flier, ‘The iconology of royal ritual in sixteenth-century Muscovy’, in Speros Vryonis Jr., ed.,
Byzantine Studies: Essays on the Slavic World and the 11th Century
(New Rochelle, NY, 1992), p. 61.

3
. The same kinds of observations were made, in the middle of the seventeenth century, by the visiting Syrian priest Paul of Aleppo. See
The Travels of Macarius, Patriarch of Antioch: Written by His Attendant Archdeacon, Paul of Aleppo, in Arabic,
trans. F. C. Belfour (London, 1836), vol. 1, pp. 342–5.

4
. The most heroic explanation, and the most convincing, is Paul Bushkovitch, ‘The epiphany ceremony of the Russian court in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries’,
Russian Review,
49, 1 (January 1990), pp. 13–14. The same article places the date of the ceremony’s adoption in Moscow at some point between 1477 and 1525. For the role of the horses and other magical aspects of the scene, see also W. F. Ryan,
The Bathhouse at Midnight: Magic in Russia
(Stroud, 1999), pp. 57 and 131–2.

5
. Michael S. Flier, ‘Till the End of Time: The Apocalypse in Russian historical experience before 1500’, in Valerie A. Kivelson and Robert H. Greene, eds.,
Orthodox Russia: Belief and Practice Under the Tsars
(University Park, Pa., 2003), pp. 127–58.

6
. P. Pierling,
La Russie et le Saint Siège: Etudes Diplomatiques,
vol. 2 (Paris, 1896), p. 205.

7
. She was the first cousin once removed of both Ivan III and Prince Ivan Yurevich Patrikeev. For more on the late fifteenth-century crisis, see Nancy Shields Kollmann, ‘Consensus politics: the dynastic crisis of the 1490s reconsidered’,
Russian Review,
45, 3 (July 1986), pp. 235–67.

8
. See Janet Martin,
Medieval Russia, 980–1584
(Cambridge, 2007), p. 247.

9
. For an account, see S. P. Bartenev,
Moskovskii Kreml’ v starinu i teper’,
2 vols. (St Petersburg, 1912 and 1918), vol. 2, pp. 91–3. See also G. P. Majeska, ‘The Moscow coronation of 1498 reconsidered’,
JbFGO,
26 (1978), esp. p. 356.

10
. John Fennell,
Ivan the Great of Moscow
(London, 1961), pp. 339–42.

11
. The story is also discussed in T. D. Panova,
Kremlevskie usypal’nitsy: Istoriia, sud’ba, taina
(Moscow, 2003), p. 58.

12
. For a description of it, see Bartenev,
Moskovskii Kreml’,
vol. 2, pp. 121–8; for evidence of later weddings, see Russell E. Martin, ‘Choreographing the “Tsar’s Happy Occasion”: tradition, change, and dynastic legitimacy in the weddings of Mikhail Romanov’,
Slavic Review,
63, 4 (Winter 2004), pp. 794–817.

13
. Konstantin Mikhailov,
Unichtozhennyi Kreml’
(Moscow, 2007), p. 61.

14
. Sergei Bogatyrev, ‘Ivan the Terrible’, in
CHR,
vol. 1, p. 243.

15
. Bartenev,
Moskovskii Kreml’,
vol. 2, pp. 168–73.

16
. There is no proof, of course. See Nancy Shields Kollmann,
Kinship and Politics: The Making of the Muscovite Political System
(Stanford, Calif., 1987), p. 168.

17
. Isabel de Madariaga,
Ivan the Terrible: First Tsar of Russia
(New Haven, Conn. and London, 2005), p. 40. The source is not given.

18
. de Madariaga,
Ivan,
pp. 40–41; Panova,
Kremlevskie usypal’nitsy,
p. 60.

19
. Panova,
Kremlevskie usypal’nitsy,
p. 147.

20
. Kollmann,
Kinship and Politics,
p. 170.

21
. Kollmann,
Kinship and Politics,
pp. 169–74.

22
. The letter is part of the famous Ivan–Kurbsky correspondence. For a discussion of its authenticity, see R. G. Skrynnikov,
Perepiska Groznogo i Kurbskogo: paradoksy Edvarda Kinana
(Leningrad, 1973) and the book that provoked it: Edward L. Keenan,
The Kurbskii-Groznyi Apocrypha
(Cambridge, Mass., 1971).

23
. J. L. I. Fennell, trans. and ed.,
The Correspondence between Prince A. M. Kurbsky and Tsar Ivan IV of Russia,
1564–1579
(Cambridge, 1955), letter from Ivan to Kurbsky, p. 73.

24
. Bogatyrev, ‘Ivan the Terrible’, p. 244.

25
. Sergei Bogatyrev, ‘Reinventing the Russian monarchy in the 1550s: Ivan IV, the dynasty, and the church’,
SEER,
85, 2 (April 2007), p. 273.

26
. R. G. Skrynnikov,
Velikii gosudar’ Ioan Vasil’evich Groznyi,
2 vols. (Smolensk, 1996), vol. 1, p. 137. Ivan III’s advisors had probably used a Serbian translation of original Greek texts, and the likelihood is that Makary’s men used similar materials. As Michael Angold puts the matter, it was ‘much easier to absorb Byzantine influences, once Byzantium was no more’. Michael Angold,
The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans
(Harlow, 2012), p. 140.

27
. Michael Cherniavsky,
Tsar and People: Studies in Russian Myths
(New Haven, Conn. and London, 1961), p. 45.

28
. D. B. Miller, ‘The coronation of Ivan IV of Moscow’,
JbFGO,
15 (1967), pp. 559–74, esp. p. 563.

29
. According to the best recent scholarship, Makary further emphasized this point by withholding the ritual of anointing with holy oil from the ceremony itself. See Sergei Bogatyrev,
The Sovereign and his Counsellors: Ritualised Consultations in Muscovite Political Culture
(Helsinki, 2000), p. 164, and also his ‘Reinventing the Russian Monarchy’, p. 275.

30
. A version of the text appears in Makarii (Arkhimandrit Veretennikov),
Zhizn’ i trudy sviatitelia Makariia
(Moscow, 2002), pp. 367–9.

31
. Skrynnikov,
Velikii gosudar’,
vol. 1, p. 138.

32
. On the choice of date, see Flier, ‘Iconology of royal ritual’, p. 73.

33
. See Sergei Bogatyrev, ‘Micro-periodization and dynasticism: was there a divide in the reign of Ivan the Terrible?’,
Slavic Review,
69, 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 406–7.

34
. The gold is referred to with special emphasis in accounts of the coronation. See
DAI,
vol. 1, pp. 41–53. On the teams who rang the Kremlin bells, see A. Olearius,
The Travels of Olearius in Seventeenth-Century Russia
(Stanford, Calif., 1967), p. 114.

35
. Miller, ‘Coronation of Ivan IV’, p. 562.

36
. The case is made by R. G. Skrynnikov,
Krest’ i korona
(St Petersburg, 2000), p. 225.

37
. Bogatyrev, ‘Ivan the Terrible’, p. 249.

38
. Bartenev,
Moskovskii Kreml’,
vol. 2, p. 179. The original account of the fire, in the
Tsarstvennaia kniga,
was written thirty years or so after the fact.

39
. John Stuart,
Ikons
(London, 1975), p. 102.

40
. See Skrynnikov,
Krest’,
pp. 225–6.

41
.
Tsarstvennaia kniga,
PSRL,
vol. 13, s. 456; cited in Fennell,
Correspondence,
p. 81, n. 2.

42
. de Madariaga,
Ivan,
pp. 61–2.

43
. de Madariaga,
Ivan,
p. 63.

44
. This last was the
obraznaia palata.
See S. K. Bogoiavlenskii, ed.,
Gosudarstvennaia oruzheinaia palata Moskovskogo kremlia
(Moscow, 1954), p. 514. See also O. I. Podobedova,
Moskovskaia shkola zhivopisi pri Ivane IV: raboty v Moskovskom Kremle 40x–70x godov XVI v.
(Moscow, 1972), p. 15; Stuart,
Ikons,
p. 102; on the workshops, see also I. A. Selezneva,
Zolotaia i serebrianaia palaty: kremlevskie masterskie XVII veka: organizatsiia i formy
(Moscow, 2001).

45
. Podobedova,
Moskovskaia shkola,
pp. 5–8; on Ivan’s throne, see Bogatyrev,
Sovereign,
p. 75.

46
. For a discussion, see V. M. Sorokatyi, ‘“Serdtse tsarevo v rutse Bozhiei”: tema nebesnogo zastupnichestva gosudariu v khudozhestvennom ubranstve Blagoveshchenskogo sobora pri Ivane IV’,
Materialy i issledovaniia,
vol. XIX, pp. 67–82.

47
. See also Michael S. Flier, ‘The throne of Monomakh’, in James Cracraft and Daniel Bruce Rowland, eds.,
Architectures of Russian Identity: 1500 to the Present
(Ithaca, NY, 2003), pp. 21–33.

48
. The entire cycle is decribed in an appendix to Podobedova,
Moskovskaia shkola,
using Ushakov’s sketches.

49
. David B. Miller, ‘The Viskovatyi affair of 1553–4’,
Russian History,
8, 3 (1981), pp. 293–332.

50
. de Madariaga,
Ivan,
p. 126; Heinrich von Staden,
The Land and Government of Muscovy,
trans. Thomas Esper (Stanford, Calif., 1967), p. 44.