Restless Empire (70 page)

15
. Theodore White and Annalee Jacoby,
Thunder out of China
(New York: William Sloane, 1946), 162.

16
. Micah S. Muscolino, “Refugees, Land Reclamation, and Militarized Landscapes in Wartime China: Huanglongshan, Shaanxi, 1937–45,”
The Journal of Asian Studies
69, no. 2 (2010): 453–478.

17
. One particularly good book on how war made modern China is Hans van de Ven,
War and Nationalism in China: 1925–1945
(London: Routledge Curzon, 2003).

18
. Entry for 22 December 1943,
The Diary of Georgi Dimitrov,
intr. and ed. Ivo Banac (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 290.

19
.
In the name of national resistance:
Ralph Thaxton,
Salt of the Earth: The Political Origins of Peasant Protest and Communist Revolution in China
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 256.
In the western Shandong borderlands:
Yung-fa Chen,
Making Revolution: The Communist Movement in Eastern and Central China, 1937–1945
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 267–269.

20
. Parks M. Coble, “Japan’s New Order and the Shanghai Capitalists: Conflict and Collaboration, 1937–1945,” in
Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932–1945: The Limits of Accommodation
, ed. David P. Barrett and Lawrence N. Shyu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), 135–155.

21
. Peter J. Seybolt, “The War Within a War: A Case Study of a County on the North China Plain,” in
Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932–1945: The Limits of Accommodation
, ed. David P. Barrett and Lawrence N. Shyu (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001).

22
.
They could also, where needed:
Yung-fa Chen,
Making Revolution,
116–117.
Hurley also promised US supplies:
Michael Sheng,
Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 89–93. See also Odd Arne Westad,
Cold War and Revolution: Soviet-American Rivalry and the Origins of the Chinese Civil War, 1944–1946
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).

23
. Chiang Kai-shek’s victory message, 15 August 1945, at IBiblio,
http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1945/450815c.html
.

CHAPTER 8: COMMUNISM

1
. Sin-wai Chan and David E. Pollard, eds.,
An Encyclopaedia of Translation: Chinese-English, English-Chinese
(Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2001).

2
. For this, see David Apter and Tony Saich,
Revolutionary Discourse in Mao’s Republic
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994).

3
. Quoted from Westad,
Decisive Encounters,
160.

4
.
Selected Works of Mao Zedong,
Vol. 5.

5
.
Lin Biao, the civil war hero:
“Ai Yingxu, Lin Biao ruhe duidai kangMei yuanChao: Bu tongyi chubing Chaoxian?” [What Attitude Did Lin Biao Have to the Campaign to Resist America and Assist Korea: Did He Not Agree with the Sending of Troops to Korea?], 9 September 2010, at
http://dangshi.people.com.cn
, accessed 5 October 2010.
“To enter the war”:
Mao Zedong to Zhou Enlai, 13 October 1950, Mao Zedong,
Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong wengao
[Mao Zedong’s Manuscripts Since the Founding of the People’s Republic], ed. Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1996), vol. 1, 556.

6
. James Z. Gao, “War Culture, Nationalism, and Political Campaigns, 1950–1953,” in
Chinese Nationalism in Perspective: Historical and Recent Cases
, ed. C. X. George Wei and Xiaoyuan Liu (New York: Praeger, 2001); Adam Cathcart, “Japanese Devils and American Wolves: Chinese Communist Songs from the War of Liberation and the Korean War,”
Popular Music and Society
33, no. 2 (2010): 203.

7
. Lorenz Lüthi,
The Sino-Soviet Split: Cold War in the Communist World
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).

8
. For different estimates, see Shu Guang Zhang,
Economic Cold War: America’s Embargo Against China and the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949–1963
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002) and Shen Zhihua,
Sulian zhuanjia zai Zhongguo, 1948–1960
[Soviet Experts in China, 1948–1960] (Beijing: Zhongguo guoji guangbo, 2003). My figures are based on conversations with Chinese economists working on the effects of the aid program.

9
. For Shanghai, see Li Dehong, ed.,
Shanghai shi zhongxue jiaoshi yundong shiliao xuan
[Selected Materials on the Secondary School Teachers’ Movement in Shanghai] (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu, 1997).

10
. See Cui Xiaolin’s fascinating
Chongsu yu sikao: 1951 nian qianhou gao xiao zhishifenzi sixiang gaizao yundong yanjiu
[Remoulding and Rethinking: A Study of the Movement to Transform the Thinking of Intellectuals in Colleges and Universities Around 1951] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi, 2005). For
Renmin Daxue
, see Douglas A. Stiffler, “Building Socialism at Chinese People’s University: Chinese Cadres and Soviet Experts in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–1957” (PhD dissertation, University of California–San Diego, 2002).

11
.
The wholesale importing of curricula:
Having observed first hand the same mixture at the (re)introduction of American curricula and teaching methods in China in the 1980s, I can only sympathize with the students on whom all of this was tested out.
There was a fair share:
Eddy U, “The Making of
zhishifenzi
: The Critical Impact of the Registration of Unemployed Intellectuals in the Early PRC,”
The China Quarterly
173 (2003): 100–121; and idem, “The Hiring of Rejects: Teacher Recruitment and Crises of Socialism in the Early PRC Years,”
Modern China
30, 1, (2004): 46–80.

12
. See for instance the record of the conversation between Mao Zedong and Soviet Ambassador Iudin, 21 December 1955, 11–19, delo 9, papka 410, opis 49, fond 0100, Russian Foreign Ministry Archive, Moscow (AVPRF).

13
. See Stiffler, “Building Socialism at Chinese People’s University.”

14
. Pepper,
Radicalism and Education Reform in Twentieth-Century China
, 224.

15
. Odd Arne Westad,
Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War, 1946–1950
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003), 274–276.

16
. See for instance James Gao,
The Communist Takeover of Hangzhou: The Transformation of City and Cadre, 1949–1954
(Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004); for CCP attitudes to Beijing, see Wang Jun’s controversial
Cheng ji
[Records of the City] (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 2003).

17
.
That discipline was developed:
Barbara Kreis,
Moskau 1917–35: vom Wohnungsbau zum Städtebau
[Moscow 1917–35: From Living Quarters to City Buildings] (Düsseldorf: Edition Marzona, 1985); Alessandra Latur, ed.,
Rozhdenie metropolii: Moskva, 1930–1955. Vospominaniia i obrazy
[Birth of a Metropolis: Moscow, 1930–1955. Recollections and Images] (Moscow: Iskusstvo-XXI vek, 2005); R. A. French,
Plans, Pragmatism and People: The Legacy of Soviet Planning for Today’s Cities
(London: UCL Press, 1995).
There had to be a centralized
plan
: For an excellent critical review of urban planning as a “modernist movement,” see Peter Hall,
Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century,
third ed. (London: Blackwell, 2003).

18
. Wu Hung,
Remaking Beijing: Tiananmen Square and the Creation of a Political Space
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005) provides an original and entertaining view of CCP attitudes to the city.

19
. Several of the reports on Soviet advice, as well as material relating to some of the early CCP discussions, can be found in
Jianguo yilai de Beijing chengshi jianshe ziliao. Di yi juan: Chengshi guihua
[Materials on Urban Construction of Beijing since the Founding of the PRC]. Book 1: Urban planning (internal publication; Beijing: Beijing jianshe shishu bianji
weiyuanhui bianjibu, 1987). The following paragraphs build in part on all seven volumes of this important internal-circulation series.

20
.
His notes from that time:
See his writings in
Liang Sicheng quanji
[Collected Works of Liang Sicheng], vol. 6 (Beijing: Zhongguo jianzhu gongye, 2001).
His son remembers:
Quoted in
China Daily,
1 October 1999.
Whatever Liang’s own motives:
Wang Jun,
Cheng ji
is excellent on this, esp. 22–65.

21
.
“Apparently, emperors can live in Beijing”:
Wang Jun, “1950 niandai: dui Liang-Chen fangan de lishi kaocha” [1950s: A Historical Investigation of the Liang-Chen Proposal], at
http://www.cc.org.cn
.
There should be complete equality:
See
Jianguo yilai de Beijing chengshi jianshe ziliao. Di yi juan.

22
. Stalin,
Marxism and the National Question
, first published in
Prosveshcheniye
, Nos. 3–5, March–May 1913.

23
. Xiaoyuan Liu,
Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006) gives an excellent overview of the development of CCP attitudes.

24
. The key documents from the late 1940s and 1950s can be found in
Minzu wenti wenxian huibian
[A Collection of Documents on the Nationalities’ Question] (internal circulation; Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao, 1991).

25
. I do not have a percentage figure on how much of the Soviet theoretical literature that was translated up to 1955 dealt with minorities’ issues, but a rough guess would be as much as thirty percent; see Greg Guldin, “Anthropology by Other Names: The Impact of Sino-Soviet Friendship on the Anthropological Sciences,”
The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs
, 27 (1992): 133–149.

26
.
The CCP’s own past visions:
For this, see Chen Yongfa,
Zhongguo gongchan geming 70 nian
[Seventy Years of Chinese Communist Revolution], vol. 1, second ed. (Taibei: Lianjing, 2001).
The Soviets, on their side:
See the undated Soviet embassy report (early 1954), pp. 25–35, delo 7, papka 379, opis 417, fond 0100, AVPRF.

27
. For a view from the time when the People’s Republic was being constructed, see record of conversation, Zhou Enlai—Soviet ambassador Roshchin, 15 November 1949, pp. 57–66, delo 220, papka 36, opis 22, fond 07, AVPRF.

28
. A reason why some of my ethnic minority friends like to quip about China’s political history as representing “Han’s cruelty to Han.”

29
. Shu Guang Zhang,
Deterrence and Strategic Culture: Chinese-American Confrontations, 1949–1958
(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992), 185; see also Shu Guang Zhang, “Constructing ‘Peaceful Coexistence’: China’s Diplomacy Toward the Geneva and Bandung Conferences, 1954–55,”
Cold War History
7, no. 4 (2007): 509.

30
. Wang Ning, “The Great Northern Wilderness: Political Exiles in the People’s Republic of China” (PhD thesis, University of British Columbia, 2005), 54.

31
. Zhonggong zhongyang wenxian yanjiushi, ed.,
Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian
[A Selection of Important Documents since the Founding of the People’s Republic] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1992), vol. 10, 613.

32
. “Liu Shaoqi’s report at the first national conference on propaganda work, 7 May 1951,” document no. 123/25/2/5, Archives of Shaanxi Province; quoted in Yang Kuisong, “Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries,”
The China Quarterly
193, no. 1 (2008): 105.

33
. The democide scholar R. J. Rummel estimates deaths to number almost double this; near eight and half million (see Rummel’s website, at
http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/NOTE2.HTM
). My figures are based on estimates put together by PRC historians who are now working on this period.

34
. Rosemary Foot, “The Eisenhower Administration’s Fear of Empowering the Chinese,”
Political Science Quarterly
111, no. 3 (Autumn 1996): 517.

35
.
And when Conservative British Prime Minister:
Mao-Iudin, memorandum of conversation, 25 May 1955, p. 112, d. 9, papka 393, op. 48, f.0100, AVPRF.
Mao told his aides:
Mao conversation with Zhou Enlai and others, 12 November 1959, quoted in Bo Yibo,
Ruogan zhongda juece yu shijian de huigu
[Recollections of Certain Major Decisions and Events], 2 vols. (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao, 1991), vol. 2, p. 1144.

36
. An excellent translation is Nikita S. Khrushchev,
The Crimes of the Stalin Era: Special Report to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
, ed. Boris I. Nicolaevsky (New York: New Leader, 1956).

37
. Wu Lengxi,
Shinian lunzhan 1956–1966: ZhongSu guanxi huiyilu
[A Decade of Polemics 1956–1966: A Memoir of Sino-Soviet Relations] (Beijing: Zhongyang wenxian, 1999), 35–36.

38
.
Renmin Ribao
, 29 December 1956.

39
. “Report Made by the Party Organization of the Chinese National General Labourers’ Union on the Situation of the Strikes of Workers,” vol.141-1-840, p. 16, Hunan Provincial Archives, Changsha. See also Zhu Dandan, “The Double Crisis: China and the Hungarian Revolution of 1956” (PhD thesis, London School of Economics, 2009), 180.