Safe Food: The Politics of Food Safety (55 page)

13
. Gilchrist A.
Foodborne Disease & Food Safety
. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1981.

14
. DeWaal CS, Barlow K, Alderton L, et al.
Outbreak Alert! Closing the Gaps in Our Federal Food Safety Net
. Washington, DC: CSPI, October 2001. DeWaal CS, Dahl E.
Dine at Your Own Risk
. CSPI, November 1996.

15
. Linnan MJ, Mascola L, Lou XD, et al. Epidemic listeriosis associated with Mexican-style cheese.
NEJM
1988;319:823–828.

16
. Buchanan RL, Doyle MP. Foodborne disease significance of
Escherichia coli
O157:H7 and other enterohemorrhagic
E. coli. Food Technology
1997;51(10): 69–76. The numbers and letters distinguish the strain of
E. coli
. The letter
O
refers to a somatic antigen (protein on the bacterial body that elicits an immune response), and
H
refers to an antigen on the bacterial flagella. (The variant is pronounced as it is spelled: E co-lie O one five seven H seven.) Grabowski EF. The hemolyticuremic syndrome—toxin, thrombin, and thrombosis.
NEJM
2002;346:58–61.

17
. Gansheroff LJ, O’Brien AD.
Escherichia coli
O157:H7 in beef cattle presented for slaughter in the U.S.: higher prevalence rates than previously estimated.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2000;97:2959–2961. Mead PS, Griffin PM.
Escherichia coli
O157:H7.
Lancet
1998;352:1207–1212.

18
. CDC reports
E. coli
cases exceed previous estimates.
Nutrition Week
, December 11, 1998:3,6. Marks S, Roberts T.
E. coli
O157:H7 ranks as the fourth most costly foodborne disease.
FoodReview
1993;16(3):51–59.

19
. MacDonald JM, Ollinger ME, Nelson KE, et al.
Consolidation in U.S. Meatpacking
(Agricultural Economic Report No. 785). USDA/ERS, February 2000. Heffernan W.
Consolidation in the Food and Agriculture System: Report to the National Farmers Union
. Columbia: University of Missouri, February 5, 1999. GAO.
Dairy Industry: Information on Milk Prices and Changing Market Structure
(GAO-01-561), June 2001.

20
. Tyson Foods. Tyson and IBP Agree on Merger Terms (press release), June 27, 2001, at
www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286–26709621_ITM
.

21
. Sierra Club.
The Rap Sheet on Animal Factories
, August 2002. Online:
www.sierraclub.org
.

22
. Goodman PS. An unsavory byproduct: runoff and nutrient pollution.
Washington Post
, August 1, 1999:A1. Five additional articles in this series followed on August 2 and 3.

23
. Armstrong GL, Hollingsworth J, Morris JG. Emerging foodborne pathogens:
Escherichia coli
O157:H7 as a model of entry of a new pathogen into the food supply of the developed world.
Epidemiologic Reviews
1996;18:29–51.

24
. Hennessy TW, Hedberg CW, Slutsker L, et al. A national outbreak of
Salmonella enteritidis
infections from ice cream.
NEJM
1996;334:1281–1286.

25
. Levy SB, FitzGerald GB, Macone AB. Changes in intestinal flora of farm personnel after introduction of a tetracycline-supplemented feed on a farm.
NEJM
1976;295:583–588. An entertaining (and accurate) source, far ahead of its time, is Schell O.
Modern Meat: Antibiotics, Hormones, and the Pharmaceutical Farm
. New York: Random House, 1984.

26
. Burros M. F.D.A. proposal on meat safety draws criticism.
NYT
, June 8, 1983:C1. Wright K. The policy response: in limbo.
Science
1990;249:24.

27
. National Research Council.
The Use of Drugs in Food Animals: Benefits and Risks
. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999:9.

28
. Leonard R. Drugs as feed additives increase risk to health.
Nutrition Week
, August 7, 1998:4–5. For the science behind these arguments, see: Smith KE, Besser JM, Hedberg CW, et al. Quinolone-resistant
Campylobacter jejuni
infections in Minnesota, 1992–1998.
NEJM
1999;340:1525–1532. Witte W. Medical consequences of antibiotic use in agriculture.
Science
1998;279:996–997. Levy SB. Private arsenals and public peril.
NEJM
1998;338:1375–1378.

29
. Federal policy statements: FDA.
Guidance for Industry. Consideration of the Human Health Impact of the Microbial Effects of Antimicrobial New Animal Drugs Intended for Use in Food-Producing Animals
, December 13, 1999, at
www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/122399d.txt
. GAO.
Food Safety: The Agricultural Use of Antibiotics and Its Implications for Human Health
(GAO/RCED-99-74), April 1999. CDC.
Draft
—
A Public Health Action Plan to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance
, June 2000, at
www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan/aractionplan.pdf
. Three papers in the October 18, 2001,
NEJM
describe the supermarket findings (2001;345:1147–1166), as does an accompanying editorial: Gorbach S. Antimicrobial use in animal feed—time to stop.
NEJM
2001;345:1202–1203.

30
. Mellon M, Benbrook C, Benbrook KL.
Hogging It! Estimates of Antimicrobial Abuse in Livestock
. Washington, DC: Union of Concerned Scientists, 2001. Barza M, Gorbach S, DeVincent SJ, eds. The need to improve antimicrobial use in agriculture: ecological and human health consequences.
Clinical Infectious Diseases
2002;34 Suppl 3:71–143. Osvath R. Bill would phase out fluoroquinolones, other antibiotics.
FCN
, March 4, 2002:6–7.

31
. Brody JE. Studies find resistant bacteria in meats.
NYT
, October 18, 2001:A12.

32
. Ferber D. Livestock feed ban preserves drugs’ power.
Science
2002;295:27.
Burros M. Poultry industry quietly cuts back on antibiotic use.
NYT
, February 10, 2002:A1,A26.

33
. Couzin J. Cattle diet linked to bacterial growth.
Science
1998;281:1578–1579. Diez-Gonzalez F, Callaway TR, Kizoulis MG, et al. Grain feeding and the dissemination of acid-resistant
Escherichia coli
from cattle.
Science
1998;281: 1666–1668. Beers A. Feed supplement can reduce
E. coli
shedding, study shows.
FCN
, April 29, 2002:15. Crump JA, Sulka AC, Langer AJ, et al. An outbreak of
Escherichia coli
O157:H7 infections among visitors to a dairy farm.
NEJM
2002;347:555–560.

34
. Friedland WH. The new globalization: the case of fresh produce. In: Bonnano A, Busch L, Friedland WH, et al., eds.
From Columbus to ConAgra: The Globalization of Agriculture and Food
. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1994:210–231. For statistics on food imports, see: USDA/ERS.
Vegetables and Specialties Yearbook
, at
http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewTaxonomy.do?taxonomyID=6
.

35
. Burros M. Salad bars: how clean are they?
NYT
, August 25, 1999:F1,F9.

36
. Holler T. The iron rule in Omaha’s jungle.
Social Policy
2002;32(4):21–27. Schlosser E.
Fast Food Nation
. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2001.

37
. Morris JG, Potter M. Emergence of new pathogens as a function of changes in host susceptibility.
Emerging Infectious Diseases
1997;3:335–344.

38
. Hearn L. Haceldama.
Cincinnati Commercial
, September 5, 1875. Reprinted in: Cott J.
Wandering Ghost: The Odyssey of Lafcadio Hearn
. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991:61–69. Cott defines
haceldama
as a New Testament word meaning “field of blood.”

39
. Smith MS, Roth DM.
Chronological Landmarks in American Agriculture
(Agricultural Information Bulletin No. 425). USDA/ERS, November 1990. Brady RP, Cooper RM, Silverman RS, eds.
Fundamentals of Law and Regulation: An In-Depth Look at Foods, Veterinary Medicines, and Cosmetics
. Washington, DC: Food and Drug Law Institute, 1997.

40
. Goodwin LS.
The Pure Food, Drink, and Drug Crusaders, 1879–1914
. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1999. Coppin CA, High J.
The Politics of Purity: Harvey Washington Wiley and the Origins of Federal Food Policy
. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999. The authors argue that Wiley’s interests in promoting pure food legislation had more to do with self-interest in expanding his bureau than with public health.

41
. Sinclair U.
The Jungle
, 1906 (Bantam Classic edition, 1981). The introduction by Morris Dickstein explains the genesis of the book. The five quotations are from pages 135, 275, 135, 99, and 36, respectively.

42
. Congress immediately amended the 1906 Meat Inspection Act (the Beveridge Amendment) and reenacted it as the Meat Inspection Act of 1907. This book uses 1906 as the relevant date.

43
. National Research Council.
Meat and Poultry Inspection: The Scientific Basis of the Nation’s Program
. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1985.

44
.
Congressional Record
—
Senate
, June 30, 1906:9791–9792 (Vol. 40, Part 10, 59th Congress, 1st Session). CDC. Achievements in public health, 1900–1999: safer and healthier foods.
MMWR
1999;48(40):905–913.

45
.
Congressional Record
—
House
, June 29, 1906:9735–9740 (Vol. 40, Part 10, 59th Congress, 1st Session).

46
. Wiley HW.
1001 Tests of Foods, Beverages and Toilet Accessories Good and Otherwise: Why They Are So
. New York: Hearst’s International Library, 1914:ix–xix.

47
. Robinson RA.
Food Safety and Security: Fundamental Changes Needed to Ensure Safe Food
(GAO-02-47T), October 10, 2001.

48
. GAO.
Food Safety and Quality: Who Does What in the Federal Government
(GAO/RCED-91-19A and GAO/RCED-91-19B), December 1990.

49
. GAO.
Food Safety and Quality: Uniform, Risk-based Inspection System Needed to Ensure Safe Food Supply
(GAO/RCED-92-152), June 1992.

50
. GAO.
Food Safety: U.S. Lacks a Consistent Farm-to-Table Approach to Egg Safety
(GAO/RCED-99-184), July 1999. Bäumler AJ, Hargis BM, Tsolis RM. Tracing the origins of
Salmonella
outbreaks.
Science
2000;287:50–52.

51
. National Research Council.
Poultry Inspection: The Basis for a Risk-Assessment Approach
. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987. USDA/FSIS. Enhanced poultry inspection: proposed rule.
FR
59:35639–35657, July 13, 1994. GAO.
Food Safety: Weaknesses in Meat and Poultry Inspection Pilot Should Be Addressed before Implementation
(GAO-02-59), December 2001.

52
. Putnam J, Allshouse J. Imports’ share of U.S. diet rises in late 1990s.
FoodReview
2001;24(3):15–22. FDA, USDA, EPA, CDC.
Food Safety from Farm to Table: A National Food Safety Initiative: Report to the President
, May 1997. Online: vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/fsreport.html.

1
. Morgan D. Trying to lead the USDA through a thicket of politics.
Washington Post
, July 5, 1978:A8.

2
. Foreman CT. Unequal protection, unfair competition: the cause and effect of different standards for food safety and nutrition (speech). Washington, DC: Consumer Federation of America’s Consumer Assembly, March 1991 (revised June 10, 1991).

3
. Jacobson M.
Nutrition Scoreboard
. New York: Avon Books, 1974. Sarasohn J. Ex-USDA chief Glickman joins Akins group.
Washington Post
, February 8, 2001:A21.

4
. Center for Public Integrity.
Safety Last: The Politics of E. coli and Other Food-Borne Killers
. Washington, DC, 1998. Quotation: 52. Also see:
Food Safety and Government Regulation of Coliform Bacteria
. Hearing before the Subcommittee on Agricultural Research, Conservation, Forestry, and General Legislation. 103rd Congress, 1st Session, February 5, 1993:69–70. Mulkern AC. Is USDA too close to meat industry?
Denver Post
, August 11, 2002:A1.

5
.
American Public Health Association et al
. v.
Earl Butz, Secretary of Department of Agriculture et al
. 511 F. 2d 331 (DC Circuit Court of Appeals), December 19, 1974.

6
. Gilchrist A.
Foodborne Disease & Food Safety
. Chicago: American Medical Association, 1981:95–98.

7
. Sugarman C. The road to food safety? How the government’s new rules
will (and won’t) protect your dinner.
Washington Post
, October 29, 1997:E1,E11. Lachance PA. Development of stored food and water systems.
Environmental Biology and Medicine
1971;1:205–228. I am indebted to George Pillsbury and James Behnke for explaining this history.

8
. USDA/FSIS. Pathogen reduction: Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems: final rule with request for comments.
FR
61:38806–38989, July 25, 1996.

9
. USDA/FSIS. Generic HACCP models and guidance materials available for review and comment.
FR
61:32053–32054, June 12, 1997.

10
. National Research Council.
Meat and Poultry Inspection: The Scientific Basis of the Nation’s Program
. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1985:159.

11
. National Research Council.
An Evaluation of the Role of Microbiological Criteria for Food and Food Ingredients
. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1985.