The Crimean War (76 page)
Authors: Orlando Figes
Tags: #History, #Military, #General, #Europe, #Other, #Russia & the Former Soviet Union, #Crimean War; 1853-1856
Peasant Russia, Civil War:
The Volga Countryside in Revolution, 1917 – 1921
The Volga Countryside in Revolution, 1917 – 1921
A People’s Tragedy:
The Russian Revolution, 1891 – 1924
The Russian Revolution, 1891 – 1924
Interpreting the Russian Revolution:
The Language and Symbols of 1917
(with Boris Kolonitskii)
The Language and Symbols of 1917
(with Boris Kolonitskii)
Natasha’s Dance:
A Cultural History of Russia
A Cultural History of Russia
The Whisperers:
Private Life in Stalin’s Russia
Private Life in Stalin’s Russia
ABBREVIATIONS
| AN | Archives nationales, Paris |
| BLMD | British Library Manuscripts Division, London |
| BLO | Bodleian Library Special Collections, Oxford |
| BOA | Basbakanlik Osmanlik Archive, Istanbul |
| FO | National Archive, London, Foreign Office |
| GARF | State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow |
| IRL | Institute of Russian Literature, Russian Academy of Sciences, St Petersburg |
| NAM | National Army Museum, London |
| RA | Royal Archives, Windsor |
| RGADA | Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts, Moscow |
| RGAVMF | Russian State Archive of the Military Naval Fleet, St Petersburg |
| RGB | Russian State Library, Manuscripts Division, St Petersburg |
| RGIA | Russian State Historical Archive, St Petersburg |
| RGVIA | Russian State Military History Archive, Moscow |
| SHD | Service historique de la Défense, Vincennes |
| WO | National Archive, London, War Office |
INTRODUCTION
1
L. Liashuk,
Ofitsery chernomorskogo flota pogubshie pri zashchite Sevastopolia v 1854–1855 gg.
(Simferopol, 2005); G. Arnold,
Historical Dictionary of the Crimean War
(London, 2002), pp. 38–9.
Ofitsery chernomorskogo flota pogubshie pri zashchite Sevastopolia v 1854–1855 gg.
(Simferopol, 2005); G. Arnold,
Historical Dictionary of the Crimean War
(London, 2002), pp. 38–9.
2
Losses of Life in Modern Wars: Austria-Hungary; France
(Oxford, 1916), p. 142;
Histoire militaire de la France
, 4 vols. (Paris, 1992), vol. 2, p. 514; D. Murphy,
Ireland and the Crimean War
(Dublin, 2002), p. 104. The best recent survey of allied effectives and casualties is T. Margrave, ‘Numbers & Losses in the Crimea: An Introduction’,
War Correspondent
, 21/1 (2003), pp. 30–32; 21/2 (2003), pp. 32–6; 21/3 (2003), pp. 18–22.
(Oxford, 1916), p. 142;
Histoire militaire de la France
, 4 vols. (Paris, 1992), vol. 2, p. 514; D. Murphy,
Ireland and the Crimean War
(Dublin, 2002), p. 104. The best recent survey of allied effectives and casualties is T. Margrave, ‘Numbers & Losses in the Crimea: An Introduction’,
War Correspondent
, 21/1 (2003), pp. 30–32; 21/2 (2003), pp. 32–6; 21/3 (2003), pp. 18–22.
3
J. Herbé,
Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient
(Paris, 1892), p. 337; A. Khrushchev,
Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia
(St Petersburg, 1889), pp. 157–8.
Français et russes en Crimée: Lettres d’un officier français à sa famille pendant la campagne d’Orient
(Paris, 1892), p. 337; A. Khrushchev,
Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia
(St Petersburg, 1889), pp. 157–8.
CHAPTER 1. RELIGIOUS WARS
1
FO 78/446, Finn to Aberdeen, 27 May 1846; 78/705 Finn to Palmerston, 5 Apr. 1847; H. Martineau,
Eastern Life
:
Present and Past
, 3 vols. (London, 1848), vol. 3, pp. 162–5.
Eastern Life
:
Present and Past
, 3 vols. (London, 1848), vol. 3, pp. 162–5.
2
Ibid., pp. 120–21.
3
FO 78/368, Young to Palmerston, 14 Mar. 1839.
4
Quoted in D. Hopwood,
The Russian Presence in Palestine and Syria, 1843–1914: Church and Politics in the Near East
(Oxford, 1969), p. 9.
The Russian Presence in Palestine and Syria, 1843–1914: Church and Politics in the Near East
(Oxford, 1969), p. 9.
5
A. Kinglake,
The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan
, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 1, pp. 42–3; N. Shepherd,
The Zealous Intruders: The Western Rediscovery of Palestine
(London, 1987), p. 23; Martineau,
Eastern Life
, vol. 3, p. 124; R. Curzon,
Visits to Monasteries in the Levant
(London, 1849), p. 209.
The Invasion of the Crimea: Its Origin and an Account of Its Progress down to the Death of Lord Raglan
, 8 vols. (London, 1863), vol. 1, pp. 42–3; N. Shepherd,
The Zealous Intruders: The Western Rediscovery of Palestine
(London, 1987), p. 23; Martineau,
Eastern Life
, vol. 3, p. 124; R. Curzon,
Visits to Monasteries in the Levant
(London, 1849), p. 209.
6
FO 78/413, Young to Palmerston, 29 Jan. and 28 Apr. 1840; 78/368, Young to Palmerston, 14 Mar. and 21 Oct. 1839.
7
R. Marlin,
L’Opinion franc-comtoise devant la guerre de Crimée
, Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, vol. 17 (Paris, 1957), p. 23.
L’Opinion franc-comtoise devant la guerre de Crimée
, Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, vol. 17 (Paris, 1957), p. 23.
8
E. Finn (ed.),
Stirring Times, or, Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 to 1856
, 2 vols. (London, 1878), vol. 1, pp. 57–8, 76.
Stirring Times, or, Records from Jerusalem Consular Chronicles of 1853 to 1856
, 2 vols. (London, 1878), vol. 1, pp. 57–8, 76.
9
FO 78/705, Finn to Palmerston, 2 Dec. 1847.
10
On the various interpretations of the treaty, see R. H. Davison,
Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923: The Impact of the West
(Austin, Tex., 1990), pp. 29–37.
Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923: The Impact of the West
(Austin, Tex., 1990), pp. 29–37.
11
Mémoires du duc De Persigny
(Paris, 1896), p. 225; L. Thouvenal,
Nicolas Ier et Napoléon III: Les préliminaires de la guerre de Crimée 1852–1854
(Paris, 1891), pp. 7–8, 14–16, 59.
(Paris, 1896), p. 225; L. Thouvenal,
Nicolas Ier et Napoléon III: Les préliminaires de la guerre de Crimée 1852–1854
(Paris, 1891), pp. 7–8, 14–16, 59.
12
A. Gouttman,
La Guerre de Crimée 1853–1856
(Paris, 1995), p. 69; D. Goldfrank,
The Origins of the Crimean War
(London, 1995), pp. 76, 82–3;
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey
, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 1, pp. 17–18.
La Guerre de Crimée 1853–1856
(Paris, 1995), p. 69; D. Goldfrank,
The Origins of the Crimean War
(London, 1995), pp. 76, 82–3;
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey
, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 1, pp. 17–18.
13
A. Ubicini,
Letters on Turkey
, trans. Lady Easthope, 2 vols. (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 18–22.
Letters on Turkey
, trans. Lady Easthope, 2 vols. (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 18–22.
14
S. Montefiore,
Prince of Princes: The Life of Potemkin
(London, 2000), pp. 244–5.
Prince of Princes: The Life of Potemkin
(London, 2000), pp. 244–5.
15
W. Reddaway,
Documents of Catherine the Great
(Cambridge, 1931), p. 147;
Correspondence artistique de Grimm avec Cathérine II
, Archives de l’art français, nouvelle période, 17 (Paris, 1932), pp. 61–2;
The Life of Catherine II, Empress of Russia
, 3 vols. (London, 1798), vol. 3, p. 211;
The Memoirs of Catherine the Great
(New York, 1955), p. 378.
Documents of Catherine the Great
(Cambridge, 1931), p. 147;
Correspondence artistique de Grimm avec Cathérine II
, Archives de l’art français, nouvelle période, 17 (Paris, 1932), pp. 61–2;
The Life of Catherine II, Empress of Russia
, 3 vols. (London, 1798), vol. 3, p. 211;
The Memoirs of Catherine the Great
(New York, 1955), p. 378.
16
Davison,
Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History
, p. 37; H. Ragsdale, ‘Russian Projects of Conquest in the Eighteenth Century’, in id. (ed.),
Imperial Russian Foreign Policy
(Cambridge, 1993), pp. 83–5; V. Aksan,
Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged
(London, 2007), pp. 160–61.
Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History
, p. 37; H. Ragsdale, ‘Russian Projects of Conquest in the Eighteenth Century’, in id. (ed.),
Imperial Russian Foreign Policy
(Cambridge, 1993), pp. 83–5; V. Aksan,
Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged
(London, 2007), pp. 160–61.
17
Montefiore,
Prince of Princes
, pp. 274–5.
Prince of Princes
, pp. 274–5.
18
Ibid., pp. 246–8.
19
G. Jewsbury,
The Russian Annexation of Bessarabia: 1774–1828. A Study of Imperial Expansion
(New York, 1976), pp. 66–72, 88.
The Russian Annexation of Bessarabia: 1774–1828. A Study of Imperial Expansion
(New York, 1976), pp. 66–72, 88.
20
M. Gammer,
Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan
(London, 1994), p. 44; J. McCarthy,
Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims 1821–1922
(Princeton, 1995), pp. 30–32.
Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan
(London, 1994), p. 44; J. McCarthy,
Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims 1821–1922
(Princeton, 1995), pp. 30–32.
21
M. Kozelsky, ‘Introduction’, unpublished MS.
22
K. O’Neill, ‘Between Subversion and Submission: The Integration of the Crimean Khanate into the Russian Empire, 1783–1853’, Ph.D. diss., Harvard, 2006, pp. 39, 52–60, 181; A. Fisher,
The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772–1783
(Cambridge, 1970), pp. 144–6; M. Kozelsky, ‘Forced Migration or Voluntary Exodus? Evolution of State Policy toward Crimean Tatars during the Crimean War’, unpublished paper; B. Williams, ‘Hijra and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire’,
Cahiers du monde russe
, 41/1 (2000), pp. 79–108; M. Pinson, ‘Russian Policy and the Emigration of the Crimean Tatars to the Ottoman Empire, 1854–1862’,
Güney-Dogu Avrupa Arastirmalari Dergisi
, 1 (1972), pp. 38–41.
The Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1772–1783
(Cambridge, 1970), pp. 144–6; M. Kozelsky, ‘Forced Migration or Voluntary Exodus? Evolution of State Policy toward Crimean Tatars during the Crimean War’, unpublished paper; B. Williams, ‘Hijra and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire’,
Cahiers du monde russe
, 41/1 (2000), pp. 79–108; M. Pinson, ‘Russian Policy and the Emigration of the Crimean Tatars to the Ottoman Empire, 1854–1862’,
Güney-Dogu Avrupa Arastirmalari Dergisi
, 1 (1972), pp. 38–41.
23
A. Schönle, ‘Garden of the Empire: Catherine’s Appropriation of the Crimea’,
Slavic Review
, 60/1 (Spring 2001), pp. 1–23; K. O’Neill, ‘Constructing Russian Identity in the Imperial Borderland: Architecture, Islam, and the Transformation of the Crimean Landscape’,
Ab Imperio
, 2 (2006), pp. 163–91.
Slavic Review
, 60/1 (Spring 2001), pp. 1–23; K. O’Neill, ‘Constructing Russian Identity in the Imperial Borderland: Architecture, Islam, and the Transformation of the Crimean Landscape’,
Ab Imperio
, 2 (2006), pp. 163–91.
24
M. Kozelsky,
Christianizing Crimea: Shaping Sacred Space in the Russian Empire and Beyond
(De Kalb, Ill., 2010), chap. 3; id., ‘Ruins into Relics: The Monument to Saint Vladimir on the Excavations of Chersonesos, 1827–57’,
Russian Review
, 63/4 (Oct. 2004), pp. 655–72.
Christianizing Crimea: Shaping Sacred Space in the Russian Empire and Beyond
(De Kalb, Ill., 2010), chap. 3; id., ‘Ruins into Relics: The Monument to Saint Vladimir on the Excavations of Chersonesos, 1827–57’,
Russian Review
, 63/4 (Oct. 2004), pp. 655–72.
CHAPTER 2. EASTERN QUESTIONS
1
R. Nelson,
Hagia Sophia, 1850–1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument
(Chicago, 2004), pp. 29–30.
Hagia Sophia, 1850–1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument
(Chicago, 2004), pp. 29–30.
2
Ibid., p. 30.
3
N. Teriatnikov,
Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul: The Fossati Restoration and the Work of the Byzantine Institute
(Washington, 1998), p. 3;
The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text
, trans. S. Cross and O. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), p. 111.
Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul: The Fossati Restoration and the Work of the Byzantine Institute
(Washington, 1998), p. 3;
The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text
, trans. S. Cross and O. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), p. 111.
4
T. Stavrou, ‘Russian Policy in Constantinople and Mount Athos in the Nineteenth Century’, in L. Clucas (ed.),
The Byzantine Legacy in Eastern Europe
(New York, 1988), p. 225.
The Byzantine Legacy in Eastern Europe
(New York, 1988), p. 225.
5
Nelson,
Hagia Sophia
, p. 33.
Hagia Sophia
, p. 33.
6
A. Ubicini,
Letters on Turkey
, trans. Lady Easthope, 2 vols. (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 18–22.
Letters on Turkey
, trans. Lady Easthope, 2 vols. (London, 1856), vol. 1, pp. 18–22.
7
D. Hopwood,
The Russian Presence in Palestine and Syria, 1843–1914: Church and Politics in the Near East
(Oxford, 1969), p. 29.
The Russian Presence in Palestine and Syria, 1843–1914: Church and Politics in the Near East
(Oxford, 1969), p. 29.
8
S. Pavlowitch,
Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Serbia, 1837–39
(Paris, 1961), p. 72; B. Lewis,
The Emergence of Modern Turkey
(Oxford, 2002), p. 31.
Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Serbia, 1837–39
(Paris, 1961), p. 72; B. Lewis,
The Emergence of Modern Turkey
(Oxford, 2002), p. 31.
9
F. Bailey,
British Policy and the Turkish Reform Movement, 1826–1853
(London, 1942), pp. 19–22; D. Ralston,
Importing the European Army: The Introduction of European Military Techniques and Institutions into the Extra-European World, 1600–1914
(Chicago, 1990), pp. 62–3.
British Policy and the Turkish Reform Movement, 1826–1853
(London, 1942), pp. 19–22; D. Ralston,
Importing the European Army: The Introduction of European Military Techniques and Institutions into the Extra-European World, 1600–1914
(Chicago, 1990), pp. 62–3.
10
W. Miller,
The Ottoman Empire, 1801–1913
(Cambridge, 1913), p. 18.
The Ottoman Empire, 1801–1913
(Cambridge, 1913), p. 18.
11
V. Aksan,
Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged
(London, 2007), p. 49.
Ottoman Wars 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged
(London, 2007), p. 49.
12
D. Goldfrank,
The Origins of the Crimean War
(London, 1995), pp. 41–2.
The Origins of the Crimean War
(London, 1995), pp. 41–2.
13
A. Bitis,
Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815–1833
(Oxford, 2006), pp. 33–4, 101–4; Aksan,
Ottoman Wars
, pp. 290–96; T. Prousis,
Russian Society and the Greek Revolution
(De Kalb, Ill., 1994), pp. 31, 50–51.
Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815–1833
(Oxford, 2006), pp. 33–4, 101–4; Aksan,
Ottoman Wars
, pp. 290–96; T. Prousis,
Russian Society and the Greek Revolution
(De Kalb, Ill., 1994), pp. 31, 50–51.
14
A. Zaionchkovskii,
Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856
, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 2002), vol. 1, pp. 8, 19; L. Vyskochkov,
Imperator Nikolai I: Chelovek i gosudar
’ (St Petersburg, 2001), p. 141; M. Gershenzon,
Epokha Nikolaia I
(Moscow, 1911), pp. 21–2.
Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856
, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 2002), vol. 1, pp. 8, 19; L. Vyskochkov,
Imperator Nikolai I: Chelovek i gosudar
’ (St Petersburg, 2001), p. 141; M. Gershenzon,
Epokha Nikolaia I
(Moscow, 1911), pp. 21–2.
15
A. Tiutcheva,
Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882
(Moscow, 1928–9), pp. 96–7.
Pri dvore dvukh imperatov: Vospominaniia, dnevnik, 1853–1882
(Moscow, 1928–9), pp. 96–7.
16
R. Wortman,
Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy
, vol. 1:
From Peter the Great to the Death of Nicholas I
(Princeton, 1995), p. 382; D. Goldfrank, ‘The Holy Sepulcher and the Origin of the Crimean War’, in E. Lohr and M. Poe (eds.),
The Military and Society in Russia: 1450–1917
(Leiden, 2002), pp. 502–3.
Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy
, vol. 1:
From Peter the Great to the Death of Nicholas I
(Princeton, 1995), p. 382; D. Goldfrank, ‘The Holy Sepulcher and the Origin of the Crimean War’, in E. Lohr and M. Poe (eds.),
The Military and Society in Russia: 1450–1917
(Leiden, 2002), pp. 502–3.
17
Bitis,
Russia and the Eastern Question
, pp. 167–76.
Russia and the Eastern Question
, pp. 167–76.
18
Ibid., p. 187.
19
Aksan,
Ottoman Wars
, pp. 346–52.
Ottoman Wars
, pp. 346–52.
20
P. Schroeder,
The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848
(Oxford, 1994), pp. 658–60.
The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848
(Oxford, 1994), pp. 658–60.
21
A. Seaton,
The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle
(London, 1977), p. 36.
The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle
(London, 1977), p. 36.
22
Bitis,
Russia and the Eastern Question
, pp. 361–2, 366.
Russia and the Eastern Question
, pp. 361–2, 366.
23
FO 97/404, Ponsonby to Palmerston, 7 July 1834; R. Florescu,
The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854
(Monachii, 1962), pp. 135–60.
The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854
(Monachii, 1962), pp. 135–60.
24
F. Lawson,
The Social Origins of the Egyptian Expansionism during the Muhammad Ali Period
(New York, 1992), chap. 5; Aksan,
Ottoman Wars
, pp. 363–7; A. Marmont,
The Present State of the Turkish Empire
, trans. F. Smith (London, 1839), p. 289.
The Social Origins of the Egyptian Expansionism during the Muhammad Ali Period
(New York, 1992), chap. 5; Aksan,
Ottoman Wars
, pp. 363–7; A. Marmont,
The Present State of the Turkish Empire
, trans. F. Smith (London, 1839), p. 289.
25
Bitis,
Russia and the Eastern Question
, pp. 468–9.
Russia and the Eastern Question
, pp. 468–9.
26
Zaionchkovskii,
Vostochnaia voina
, vol. 1, p. 235.
Vostochnaia voina
, vol. 1, p. 235.
27
FO 181/114, Palmerston to Ponsonby, 6 Dec. 1833; P. Mosely,
Russian Diplomacy and the Opening of the Eastern Question in 1838 and 1839
(Cambridge, Mass., 1934), p. 12; Bailey,
British Policy
, p. 53.
Russian Diplomacy and the Opening of the Eastern Question in 1838 and 1839
(Cambridge, Mass., 1934), p. 12; Bailey,
British Policy
, p. 53.
28
L. Levi,
History of British Commerce, 1763–1870
(London, 1870), p. 562; Bailey,
British Policy
, p. 74; J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’,
Economic History Review
, 2nd ser., 6/1 (1953); FO 78/240, Ponsonby to Palmerston, 25 Nov. 1834; D. Urquhart,
England and Russia
(London, 1835), p. 110.
History of British Commerce, 1763–1870
(London, 1870), p. 562; Bailey,
British Policy
, p. 74; J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade’,
Economic History Review
, 2nd ser., 6/1 (1953); FO 78/240, Ponsonby to Palmerston, 25 Nov. 1834; D. Urquhart,
England and Russia
(London, 1835), p. 110.
29
B. Kingsley Martin,
The Triumph of Lord Palmerston: A Study of Public Opinion in England before the Crimean War
(London, 1963), p. 85.
The Triumph of Lord Palmerston: A Study of Public Opinion in England before the Crimean War
(London, 1963), p. 85.
30
J. Gleason,
The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain
(Cambridge, Mass., 1950), p. 103.
The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain
(Cambridge, Mass., 1950), p. 103.
31
Ibid., pp. 211–12, 220.
32
India, Great Britain, and Russia
(London, 1838), pp. 1–2.
(London, 1838), pp. 1–2.
33
R. Shukla,
Britain, India and the Turkish Empire, 1853–1882
(New Delhi, 1973), p. 27.
Britain, India and the Turkish Empire, 1853–1882
(New Delhi, 1973), p. 27.
34
M. Gammer,
Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan
(London, 1994), p. 121.
Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan
(London, 1994), p. 121.
35
J. Pardoe,
The City of the Sultan; and Domestic Manners of the Turks in 1836
, 2 vols. (London, 1854), vol. 1, p. 32.
The City of the Sultan; and Domestic Manners of the Turks in 1836
, 2 vols. (London, 1854), vol. 1, p. 32.
36
C. White,
Three Years in Constantinople; or, Domestic Manners of the Turks in 1844
, 3 vols. (London, 1846), p. 363. See also E. Spencer,
Travels in Circassia, Krim-Tartary, &c., including a Steam Voyage down the Danube from Vienna to Constantinople, and round the Black Sea in 1836
, 2 vols. (London, 1837).
Three Years in Constantinople; or, Domestic Manners of the Turks in 1844
, 3 vols. (London, 1846), p. 363. See also E. Spencer,
Travels in Circassia, Krim-Tartary, &c., including a Steam Voyage down the Danube from Vienna to Constantinople, and round the Black Sea in 1836
, 2 vols. (London, 1837).
37
Urquhart,
England and Russia
, p. 86.
England and Russia
, p. 86.
38
S. Lane-Poole,
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, 2 vols. (London, 1888), vol. 2, p. 17.
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, 2 vols. (London, 1888), vol. 2, p. 17.
39
Ibid., p. 104. On Freemasonry in nineteenth-century Turkey, see the many works of Paul Dumont, including ‘La Turquie dans les archives du Grand Orient de France: Les loges maçonniques d’obédience française à Istanbul du milieu du XIXe siècle à la veille de la Première Guerre Mondiale’, in J.-L. Bacqué-Grammont and P. Dumont (eds.),
Économie et société dans l’empire ottoman (fin du XVIIIe siècle–début du XXe siècle)
(Paris, 1983), pp. 171–202.
Économie et société dans l’empire ottoman (fin du XVIIIe siècle–début du XXe siècle)
(Paris, 1983), pp. 171–202.
40
A. Cunningham,
Eastern Questions in the Nineteenth Century: Collected Essays
, 2 vols. (London, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 118–19.
Eastern Questions in the Nineteenth Century: Collected Essays
, 2 vols. (London, 1993), vol. 2, pp. 118–19.
41
B. Abu Manneh, ‘The Islamic Roots of the Gülhane Rescript’, in id.,
Studies on Islam and the Ottoman Empire in the Nineteenth Century
(Istanbul, 2001), pp. 83–4, 89.
Studies on Islam and the Ottoman Empire in the Nineteenth Century
(Istanbul, 2001), pp. 83–4, 89.
42
FO 97/413, Stratford to Palmerston, 7 Feb. 1850; Lane-Poole,
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, vol. 2, p. 215.
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, vol. 2, p. 215.
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