The Crimean War (77 page)
Authors: Orlando Figes
Tags: #History, #Military, #General, #Europe, #Other, #Russia & the Former Soviet Union, #Crimean War; 1853-1856
CHAPTER 3. THE RUSSIAN MENACE
1
S. Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai I v Londone v 1844 godu’,
Istoricheskii vestnik
, 23/3 (Feb. 1886), pp. 602–4.
Istoricheskii vestnik
, 23/3 (Feb. 1886), pp. 602–4.
2
E. Stockmar,
Denkwürdigkeiten aus den Papieren des Freiherrn Christian Friedrich V. Stockmar
(Brunswick, 1872), p. 98; T. Martin,
The Life of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort
, 5 vols. (London, 1877), vol. 1, p. 215.
Denkwürdigkeiten aus den Papieren des Freiherrn Christian Friedrich V. Stockmar
(Brunswick, 1872), p. 98; T. Martin,
The Life of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort
, 5 vols. (London, 1877), vol. 1, p. 215.
3
G. Bolsover, ‘Nicholas I and the Partition of Turkey’,
Slavonic Review
, 27 (1948), p. 135.
Slavonic Review
, 27 (1948), p. 135.
4
Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, pp. 355–8.
5
Martin,
The Life of His Royal Highness
, vol. 1, p. 224.
The Life of His Royal Highness
, vol. 1, p. 224.
6
Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 604; Stockmar,
Denkwürdigkeiten
, p. 98.
Denkwürdigkeiten
, p. 98.
7
Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 604.
8
The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty’s Correspondence between the Years 1837 and 1861
, 3 vols. (London, 1907–8), vol. 2, pp. 16–17; Martin,
The Life of His Royal Highness
, vol. 1, p. 219; Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 609.
, 3 vols. (London, 1907–8), vol. 2, pp. 16–17; Martin,
The Life of His Royal Highness
, vol. 1, p. 219; Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 609.
9
Martin,
The Life of His Royal Highness
, vol. 1, p. 223; Stockmar,
Denkwürdigkeiten
, pp. 397, 400.
The Life of His Royal Highness
, vol. 1, p. 223; Stockmar,
Denkwürdigkeiten
, pp. 397, 400.
10
Tatishchev, ‘Imperator Nikolai’, p. 615; Stockmar,
Denkwürdigkeiten
, p. 399.
Denkwürdigkeiten
, p. 399.
11
Ibid., pp. 396–9.
12
H. Ragsdale, ‘Russian Projects of Conquest in the Eighteenth Century’, in id. (ed.),
Imperial Russian Foreign Policy
(Cambridge, 1993), pp. 75–7; O. Subtelnyi, ‘Peter I’s Testament: A Reassessment’,
Slavic Review
, 33 (1974), pp. 663–78.
Imperial Russian Foreign Policy
(Cambridge, 1993), pp. 75–7; O. Subtelnyi, ‘Peter I’s Testament: A Reassessment’,
Slavic Review
, 33 (1974), pp. 663–78.
13
Ragsdale, ‘Russian Projects’, pp. 79–80.
14
Ibid., p. 81.
15
J. Gleason,
The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain
(Cambridge, Mass., 1950), pp. 39, 43.
The Genesis of Russophobia in Great Britain
(Cambridge, Mass., 1950), pp. 39, 43.
16
R. Wilson,
A Sketch of the Military and Political Power of Russia in the Year 1817
(London, 1817); Gleason,
Genesis of Russophobia
, p. 56.
A Sketch of the Military and Political Power of Russia in the Year 1817
(London, 1817); Gleason,
Genesis of Russophobia
, p. 56.
17
[Lieut. Col.] Sir George de Lacy Evans,
On the Designs of Russia
(London, 1828), pp. 191, 199–219.
On the Designs of Russia
(London, 1828), pp. 191, 199–219.
18
The Portfolio; or a Collection of State Papers, etc. etc., Illustrative of the History of Our Times
, 1 (1836), p. 103.
, 1 (1836), p. 103.
19
Ibid., pp. 187–95. See further, M. Kukiel,
Czartoryski and European Unity 1770–1861
(Princeton, 1955), p. 236.
Czartoryski and European Unity 1770–1861
(Princeton, 1955), p. 236.
20
Hansard, HC Deb. 23 Feb. 1848, vol. 96, pp. 1132–1242; HC Deb. 1 Mar. 1848, vol. 47, pp. 66–123 (Palmerston quotation at p. 122).
21
The Times
, 20 July 1831;
Northern Liberator
, 3 Oct. 1840.
, 20 July 1831;
Northern Liberator
, 3 Oct. 1840.
22
Gleason,
Genesis of Russophobia
, p. 126.
Genesis of Russophobia
, p. 126.
23
Kukiel,
Czartoryski
, p. 205.
Czartoryski
, p. 205.
24
R. McNally, ‘The Origins of Russophobia in France: 1812–1830’,
American Slavic and East European Review
, 17/2 (Apr. 1958), pp. 179–83.
American Slavic and East European Review
, 17/2 (Apr. 1958), pp. 179–83.
25
A. Mickiewicz,
Livre des pèlerins polonais, traduit du polonais d’A. M. par le Comte C. de Montalembert; suivi d’un hymne à la Pologne par F. de La Menais
(Paris, 1833).
Livre des pèlerins polonais, traduit du polonais d’A. M. par le Comte C. de Montalembert; suivi d’un hymne à la Pologne par F. de La Menais
(Paris, 1833).
26
Cinq millions de Polonais forcés par la czarine Catherine, les czars Paul, Alexandre et récemment Nicolas d’abjurer leur foi religieuse. Eclaircissements sur la question des Grecs-Unis sous le rapport statistique, historique et religieux
(Paris and Strasburg, 1845);
Journal des débats
, 23 Oct. 1842.
(Paris and Strasburg, 1845);
Journal des débats
, 23 Oct. 1842.
27
The Nuns of Minsk: Narrative of Makrena Mieczystawska, Abbess of the Basilian Convent of Minsk; The History of a Seven Years’ Persecution Suffered for the Faith, by Her and Her Nuns
(London, 1846), pp. 1–16; Hansard, HL Deb. 9 Mar. 1846, vol. 84, p. 768; M. Cadot,
La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française, 1839–1856
(Paris, 1967), p. 464.
(London, 1846), pp. 1–16; Hansard, HL Deb. 9 Mar. 1846, vol. 84, p. 768; M. Cadot,
La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française, 1839–1856
(Paris, 1967), p. 464.
28
[Count] V. Krasinski,
Is the Power of Russia to be Reduced or Increased by the Present War? The Polish Question and Panslavism
(London, 1855), p. 4.
Is the Power of Russia to be Reduced or Increased by the Present War? The Polish Question and Panslavism
(London, 1855), p. 4.
29
Marquis de Custine,
Russia
, 3 vols. (London, 1844), vol. 3, pp. 21, 353; G. Kennan,
The Marquis de Custine and His Russia in 1839
(London, 1971).
Russia
, 3 vols. (London, 1844), vol. 3, pp. 21, 353; G. Kennan,
The Marquis de Custine and His Russia in 1839
(London, 1971).
30
Cadot,
La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française
, p. 471.
La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française
, p. 471.
31
S. Pavlowitch,
Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Serbia, 1837–39
(Paris, 1961).
Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Serbia, 1837–39
(Paris, 1961).
32
N.
Tsimbaev,
Slaviano fil
’
stvo: Iz istorii russkoi obshchestvennopoliticheskoi mysli XIX veka
(Moscow, 1986), p. 36.
Tsimbaev,
Slaviano fil
’
stvo: Iz istorii russkoi obshchestvennopoliticheskoi mysli XIX veka
(Moscow, 1986), p. 36.
33
A. Bitis,
Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815–1833
(Oxford, 2006), pp. 93–7.
Russia and the Eastern Question: Army, Government and Society, 1815–1833
(Oxford, 2006), pp. 93–7.
34
N. Riasanovsky,
Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia 1825–1855
(Berkeley, 1959), p. 152.
Nicholas I and Official Nationality in Russia 1825–1855
(Berkeley, 1959), p. 152.
35
Ibid., p. 166.
36
P. Mérimée,
Correspondence générale
, 18 vols. (Paris, 1941–65), vol. 5, p. 420; Cadot,
La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française
, p. 516; L. Namier,
1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals
(Oxford, 1946), pp. 40–42.
Correspondence générale
, 18 vols. (Paris, 1941–65), vol. 5, p. 420; Cadot,
La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française
, p. 516; L. Namier,
1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals
(Oxford, 1946), pp. 40–42.
37
Cadot,
La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française
, p. 468.
La Russie dans la vie intellectuelle française
, p. 468.
38
R. Florescu,
The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854
(Monachii, 1962), chaps. 7 and 8.
The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854
(Monachii, 1962), chaps. 7 and 8.
39
FO 195/321, Colquhoun to Palmerston, 16 Aug. 1848.
40
FO 195/332, Colquhoun to Stratford Canning, 2 July 1849.
41
Florescu,
Struggle against Russia
, pp. 217–18.
Struggle against Russia
, pp. 217–18.
42
D. Goldfrank,
The Origins of the Crimean War
(London, 1995), pp. 68–71.
The Origins of the Crimean War
(London, 1995), pp. 68–71.
CHAPTER 4. THE END OF PEACE IN EUROPE
1
On British naval defence against France, see A. Lambert,
The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy, 1853–56
(Manchester, 1990), pp. 25–7.
The Crimean War: British Grand Strategy, 1853–56
(Manchester, 1990), pp. 25–7.
2
RA VIC/MAIN/QVJ/1855, 16 Apr.
3
Mémoires du duc De Persigny
(Paris, 1896), p. 212.
(Paris, 1896), p. 212.
4
A. J. P. Taylor,
The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918
(Oxford, 1955), p. 49.
The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918
(Oxford, 1955), p. 49.
5
Mémoires du duc De Persigny
, p. 225; E. Bapst,
Les Origines de la Guerre en Crimée: La France et la Russie de 1848 à 1851
(Paris, 1912), pp. 325–7.
, p. 225; E. Bapst,
Les Origines de la Guerre en Crimée: La France et la Russie de 1848 à 1851
(Paris, 1912), pp. 325–7.
6
FO 78/895, Rose to Malmesbury, 28 Dec. 1852.
7
K. Vitzthum von Eckstadt,
St Petersburg and London in the Years 1852–64
, 2 vols. (London, 1887), vol. 1, p. 38; D. Goldfrank,
The Origins of the Crimean War
(London, 1995), pp. 109–10.
St Petersburg and London in the Years 1852–64
, 2 vols. (London, 1887), vol. 1, p. 38; D. Goldfrank,
The Origins of the Crimean War
(London, 1995), pp. 109–10.
8
FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 11 and 22 Jan., 22 Feb. 1853.
9
FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 11 Jan., 21 Feb. 1853; A. Cunningham,
Eastern Questions in the Nineteenth Century: Collected Essays
, 2 vols. (London, 1993), vol. 2, p. 136.
Eastern Questions in the Nineteenth Century: Collected Essays
, 2 vols. (London, 1993), vol. 2, p. 136.
10
FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 22 Feb. 1853; FO 65/425, Seymour to Clarendon, 29 Mar. 1853.
11
Cunningham,
Eastern Questions
, vol. 2, pp. 139–40.
Eastern Questions
, vol. 2, pp. 139–40.
12
FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 10 Feb. 1853.
13
RGAVMF, f. 19, op. 7, d. 135, l. 37; FO 65/424, Seymour to Russell, 7 Jan. 1853;
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey
, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 1, pp. 121–4.
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches in Turkey
, 2 vols. (London, 1854–6), vol. 1, pp. 121–4.
14
RGAVMF, f. 19, op. 7, d. 135, l. 43; J. Curtiss,
Russia’s Crimean War
(Durham, NC, 1979), p. 94.
Russia’s Crimean War
(Durham, NC, 1979), p. 94.
15
FO 65/420, Clarendon to Seymour, 23 Mar., 5 Apr. 1853; Goldfrank,
Origins of the Crimean War
, pp. 136–8.
Origins of the Crimean War
, pp. 136–8.
16
Mémoires du duc De Persigny
, pp. 226–31; Bapst,
Origines de la Guerre en Crimée
, p. 354.
, pp. 226–31; Bapst,
Origines de la Guerre en Crimée
, p. 354.
17
Mémoires du comte Horace de Viel-Castel sur le règne de Napoléon III, 1851–1864
, 2 vols. (Paris, 1979), vol. 1, p. 180; J. Ridley,
Napoleon III and Eugenie
(London, 1979), p. 365; S. Lane-Poole,
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, 2 vols. (London, 1888), vol. 2, p. 237.
, 2 vols. (Paris, 1979), vol. 1, p. 180; J. Ridley,
Napoleon III and Eugenie
(London, 1979), p. 365; S. Lane-Poole,
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, 2 vols. (London, 1888), vol. 2, p. 237.
18
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches
, vol. 1, pp. 256–8; Cunningham,
Eastern Questions
, pp. 159–62; Goldfrank,
Origins of the Crimean War
, pp. 147–8, 156–7; A. Saab,
The Origins of the Crimean Alliance
(Charlottesville, Va., 1977), pp. 135–7; Lane-Poole,
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, vol. 2, p. 248.
, vol. 1, pp. 256–8; Cunningham,
Eastern Questions
, pp. 159–62; Goldfrank,
Origins of the Crimean War
, pp. 147–8, 156–7; A. Saab,
The Origins of the Crimean Alliance
(Charlottesville, Va., 1977), pp. 135–7; Lane-Poole,
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, vol. 2, p. 248.
19
BOA, AMD, 44/81, Musurus to Reshid Pasha, 13 May 1853; RGAVMF, f. 19, op. 7, d. 135, l. 52; C. Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, Ph.D. diss. (Sabanci University, 2007), pp. 74–6.
20
A. Zaionchkovskii,
Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856
, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 2002), vol. 1, pp. 739–40.
Vostochnaia voina 1853–1856
, 3 vols. (St Petersburg, 2002), vol. 1, pp. 739–40.
21
Russkii arkhiv
, 1891, no. 8, p. 169; ‘Voina s Turtsiei 1828–1829 i 1853–1854’,
Russkaia starina
, 16 (1876), pp. 681–7; P. Schroeder,
Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert
(Ithaca, NY, 1972), p. 76.
, 1891, no. 8, p. 169; ‘Voina s Turtsiei 1828–1829 i 1853–1854’,
Russkaia starina
, 16 (1876), pp. 681–7; P. Schroeder,
Austria, Great Britain and the Crimean War: The Destruction of the European Concert
(Ithaca, NY, 1972), p. 76.
22
RGVIA, f. 846, op. 16, d. 5407, ll. 7–11; d. 5451, ll. 13–14; Zaionchkovskii,
Vostochnaia voina
, vol. 1, p. 74.
Vostochnaia voina
, vol. 1, p. 74.
23
Za mnogo let: Zapiski (vospominaniia) neizvestnogo 1844–1874 gg.
(St Petersburg, 1897), p. 74; RGB OR, f. 743, T. Klemm, ‘Vospominaniia starogo-soldata, rasskazannye synu, kadetu VII klacca Pskovskogo kadetskogo korpusa’, l. 6.
(St Petersburg, 1897), p. 74; RGB OR, f. 743, T. Klemm, ‘Vospominaniia starogo-soldata, rasskazannye synu, kadetu VII klacca Pskovskogo kadetskogo korpusa’, l. 6.
24
F. Kagan,
The Military Reforms of Nicholas I: The Origins of the Modern Russian Army
(London, 1999), p. 221; E. Brooks, ‘Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861’,
Slavic Review
, 43/1 (Spring 1984), p. 64; E. Wirtschafter,
From Serf to Russian Soldier
(Princeton, 1990), p. 24.
The Military Reforms of Nicholas I: The Origins of the Modern Russian Army
(London, 1999), p. 221; E. Brooks, ‘Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861’,
Slavic Review
, 43/1 (Spring 1984), p. 64; E. Wirtschafter,
From Serf to Russian Soldier
(Princeton, 1990), p. 24.
25
Brooks, ‘Reform’, pp. 70–71; K. Marx,
The Eastern Question: A Reprint of Letters Written 1853–1856 Dealing with the Events of the Crimean War
(London, 1969), pp. 397–8; J. Curtiss,
The Russian Army under Nicholas I, 1825–1855
(Durham, NC, 1965), p. 115; P. Alabin,
Chetyre voiny: Pokhodnye zapiski v voinu 1853, 1854, 1855 i 1856 godov
, 2 vols. (Viatka, 1861), vol. 1, p. 43.
The Eastern Question: A Reprint of Letters Written 1853–1856 Dealing with the Events of the Crimean War
(London, 1969), pp. 397–8; J. Curtiss,
The Russian Army under Nicholas I, 1825–1855
(Durham, NC, 1965), p. 115; P. Alabin,
Chetyre voiny: Pokhodnye zapiski v voinu 1853, 1854, 1855 i 1856 godov
, 2 vols. (Viatka, 1861), vol. 1, p. 43.
26
Curtiss,
Russian Army
, pp. 248–9.
Russian Army
, pp. 248–9.
27
Za mnogo let
, pp. 34–5, 45–7; RGB OR, f. 743, T. Klemm, ‘Vospominaniia starogo-soldata’, ll. 4, 7–8; Wirtschafter,
From Serf to Russian Soldier
, p. 87.
, pp. 34–5, 45–7; RGB OR, f. 743, T. Klemm, ‘Vospominaniia starogo-soldata’, ll. 4, 7–8; Wirtschafter,
From Serf to Russian Soldier
, p. 87.
28
BOA, I, HR, 328/21222; S. Kiziltoprak, ‘Egyptian Troops in the Crimean War (1853–1856)’, in
Vostochnaya (Krymskaya) Voina 1853–1856 godov: Novye materialy i novoe osmyslenie
, 2 vols. (Simferopol, 2005), vol. 1, p. 49; Lane-Poole,
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, vol. 2, p. 296.
Vostochnaya (Krymskaya) Voina 1853–1856 godov: Novye materialy i novoe osmyslenie
, 2 vols. (Simferopol, 2005), vol. 1, p. 49; Lane-Poole,
The Life of the Right Honourable Stratford Canning
, vol. 2, p. 296.
29
A. Slade,
Turkey and the Crimean War: A Narrative of Historical Events
(London, 1867), p. 186; E. Perret,
Les Français en Orient: Récits de Crimée 1854–1856
(Paris, 1889), pp. 86–7.
Turkey and the Crimean War: A Narrative of Historical Events
(London, 1867), p. 186; E. Perret,
Les Français en Orient: Récits de Crimée 1854–1856
(Paris, 1889), pp. 86–7.
30
T. Buzzard,
With the Turkish Army in the Crimea and Asia Minor
(London, 1915), p. 121; J. Reid,
Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839–1878
(Stuttgart, 2000), p. 257.
With the Turkish Army in the Crimea and Asia Minor
(London, 1915), p. 121; J. Reid,
Crisis of the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse 1839–1878
(Stuttgart, 2000), p. 257.
31
RGVIA, f. 450, op. 1, d. 33, ll. 4–12;
A Visit to Sebastopol a Week after Its Fall: By an Officer of the Anglo-Turkish Contingent
(London, 1856), p. 53;
Vospominaniia ofitsera o voennyh deistviyah na Dunae v 1853–54 gg.: Iz dnevnika P.B.
(St Petersburg, 1887), p. 566.
A Visit to Sebastopol a Week after Its Fall: By an Officer of the Anglo-Turkish Contingent
(London, 1856), p. 53;
Vospominaniia ofitsera o voennyh deistviyah na Dunae v 1853–54 gg.: Iz dnevnika P.B.
(St Petersburg, 1887), p. 566.
32
M. Chamberlain,
Lord Aberdeen: A Political Biography
(London, 1983), p. 476; FO 65/421, Palmerston to Seymour, 16 July 1853;
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches
, vol. 1, p. 400.
Lord Aberdeen: A Political Biography
(London, 1983), p. 476; FO 65/421, Palmerston to Seymour, 16 July 1853;
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches
, vol. 1, p. 400.
33
R. Florescu,
The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854
(Monachii, 1962), pp. 241–6.
The Struggle against Russia in the Romanian Principalities 1821–1854
(Monachii, 1962), pp. 241–6.
34
FO 65/422, Palmerston to Seymour, 2 Aug. 1853.
35
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches
, vol. 1, pp. 400–404.
, vol. 1, pp. 400–404.
36
Goldfrank,
Origins of the Crimean War
, pp. 190–213.
Origins of the Crimean War
, pp. 190–213.
37
The Greville Memoirs 1814–1860
, ed. L. Strachey and R. Fulford, 8 vols. (London, 1938), vol. 1, p. 85.
, ed. L. Strachey and R. Fulford, 8 vols. (London, 1938), vol. 1, p. 85.
38
H. Maxwell,
The Life and Letters of George William Frederick, Fourth Earl of Clarendon
, 2 vols. (London, 1913), vol. 2, p. 25.
The Life and Letters of George William Frederick, Fourth Earl of Clarendon
, 2 vols. (London, 1913), vol. 2, p. 25.
39
Slade,
Turkey and the Crimean War
, pp. 101–2, 107; Saab,
Origins of the Crimean Alliance
, p. 64; Cunningham,
Eastern Questions
, pp. 198–9.
Turkey and the Crimean War
, pp. 101–2, 107; Saab,
Origins of the Crimean Alliance
, p. 64; Cunningham,
Eastern Questions
, pp. 198–9.
40
Saab,
Origins of the Crimean Alliance
, p. 81; Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War’, pp. 80, 90.
Origins of the Crimean Alliance
, p. 81; Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War’, pp. 80, 90.
41
The Times
, 27 Sept. 1853;
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches
, vol. 1, pp. 562–3.
, 27 Sept. 1853;
Correspondence Respecting the Rights and Privileges of the Latin and Greek Churches
, vol. 1, pp. 562–3.
42
A. Türkgeldi,
Mesâil-i Mühimme-i Siyâsiyye
, 3 vols. (Ankara, 1957–60), vol. 1, pp. 319–21; Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War’, p. 93.
Mesâil-i Mühimme-i Siyâsiyye
, 3 vols. (Ankara, 1957–60), vol. 1, pp. 319–21; Badem, ‘The Ottomans and the Crimean War’, p. 93.
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