The Modern Middle East (116 page)

suicide bombings,
200
,
208
fig,
315
; Palestinian,
323
,
324
,
335
,
337
,
451n48
,
454n74

Suleyman I (r. 1520–66),
23

sultanistic states,
213
,
214
,
227–28
,
229–39
,
263
,
283

summits: Arab League,
136
,
193
; Arab summit conference (Fez 1982),
125
; Camp David II (2000),
332–34
,
344
; Nasser’s inauguration of (1964),
193
; NonAligned Movement (Indonesia 1955),
92–93
,
95

Sunnis,
217
,
426n22
; Bahrain,
272
; Iran,
29
; Iraq,
188
; Lebanon,
247
,
248
; Ottomans,
29
; Palestinian,
74
,
310
; Safavids vs.,
29
; Syria,
44
,
227
; traditionalists,
18–19

Swiss Civil Code, Turkey,
54

Sykes, Sir Mark,
43
,
412n19

Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916),
38–41
,
41
map,
43
,
44
,
412n19

Syria,
1
,
51
; Alawis,
228
,
269
; Alexandretta,
51
; Arab-Israeli wars,
84
,
117–21
,
124–26
,
129–30
,
135
; Arab Revolt,
39
,
40
; Arab Spring and civil war (2011–13),
5
,
217
,
223
,
267
,
291
,
294–96
,
297
fig,
447n124
; Baʿthists,
109
,
112–13
,
116
,
173–74
,
218
,
219
,
251
; birth of,
39
,
46
; and Camp David Accord (1978),
455n83
;
CIA plot to overthrow government,
111
; coups,
109
,
111
,
113–14
,
117
,
218
; cultural legitimation,
279
; domestic politics,
109–17
,
218
,
219
,
221
; economic development,
348
,
351
,
357
,
382
,
403
; economic reforms,
356–57
; Egyptian union with (UAR, 1958–61),
72
,
98
,
106
,
108
,
109–10
,
111–13
; exclusionary state,
214
,
217
; French in,
38
,
41–42
,
45–46
,
50
,
79–80
,
218
; Hama massacre (1982),
222
; inclusionary state,
215
; intellectuals,
90
,
106
,
174
,
257
; and Iran,
190
; Iraqi refugees after U.S. invasion,
206
; Islamic expansion into,
17
; and Israel,
119–21
,
125–26
,
129
,
131
,
134–35
,
138
,
190
,
247
,
403
; Jacobite Church,
10
; Kurds,
2
; and Lebanon,
248–49
,
288–89
; Madrid Peace Conference (1991),
327
; military,
109
,
111
,
113
,
117
,
129
,
221
,
289
;
mukhaberat,
217
,
220
,
221
; Ottomans,
23
,
46
; Palestinians in,
107
,
309
; Pan-Arabism,
72
,
98
,
108
,
109
,
113–14
,
137
; patrimonialism,
276
; peace process,
331
; political parties,
109
,
112–13
,
116
,
173
,
219
,
222
,
228
,
251
,
260
,
280
; “presidential monarchy,”
269
,
270
,
276
; presidential political system,
109
; railways,
37–38
; Saddam in,
174
; Saladin,
21
; Second Gulf War,
185
; security establishment,
269
; Sinai I and II treaties and,
135
; socialist state,
219
; and Soviets,
190
; Sykes-Picot Agreement,
40
; Transjordan and,
413n27
; unemployment,
272
; UN peace resolutions,
125
,
132
; urban populations,
12
; U.S. invasion of Iraq and,
203
,
206
; Vanguard for the Popular Liberation War,
124
; water,
117
,
402
,
403
; Zionist military and,
79–80
.
See also
al-Assad family; Damascus; Golan Heights

Tabriz, Iran,
29
,
32

Taʾif Accord (1972),
248–49
,
288–89

Taliban, Afghanistan,
196
,
200
,
201
,
261

Tantawi, Mohammed Hussein,
292–93

Tanzania, U.S. targets attacked in (1998),
195
,
200

taxes: economic liberalization and,
260
; informal sector and,
366
,
367
; Ottoman,
34
,
62
; PNA revenues,
342
; rentierism and,
358
,
359
; semiformal sector,
371
; Umayyad,
19

technology: high-technology exports,
375–77
,
462n84
,
463n85
; science and,
34
,
389
.
See also
media

Tehran,
30–31
,
403
; air pollution,
397–99
; despair,
404–5
; embassy powers,
143
; hostage crisis (1979–81),
155
,
157–61
,
171
,
173
,
176
,
197
,
428nn50
,
51
; local associations,
31–32
; population growth problems,
396
,
397–99
; University of Tehran,
60

telegraph lines,
25
,
30

television,
243
,
288
; Al-Jazeera,
189
fig,
198
,
267
,
292
,
382

terrorism,
208
; attacks on U.S. targets abroad,
195
,
200
; conspiracy theories about,
274
; Irani reign of terror,
155
,
156
,
161–63
,
168
,
176
; Islamist,
194–96
,
261
,
268
; multinational corporations and,
261
; national security states vs.,
265
; official nationalism and,
274
; Turkish domestic,
243
; U.S.-led coalition in Iraq vs. (1990s),
171
; U.S. war on,
190
,
195
,
200–203
,
336
,
433n72
; Zionist,
80
,
83
.
See also
Al-Qaeda/bin Laden; suicide bombings

al-Thani family, Qatar,
233

Thant, U,
118

Third World: cities,
396
; depoliticization of militaries,
243
; economic underdevelopment,
347–48
; Egyptian advocacy of independence in,
96

Third Worldism (1950s),
139
.
See also
revolutions

Tigris River,
12
,
402–4

trade: caravan,
9
; imports,
347–48
,
377
,
394–95
,
464n16
; intraregional,
377–82
,
377–81
tables;
Mecca,
14
.
See also
economic sectors; exports; oil

tradition: imagined/civic myth,
215
,
231
,
234
,
238
,
263
; inclusionary states and,
227
; state modernist transformation,
218
; sultanistic states,
229–30
,
232–33
,
235
,
237
; Sunnis and,
18–19
; traditionalist anticolonialism,
101
,
102
.
See also
cultural values; religions; tribalism

Trans-Iranian Railway,
60

Transjordan,
51
; Abdullah,
42
,
46
,
71
,
84
,
412n14
; birth of,
39
,
42
,
46
; Britain and,
37
,
39–46
,
50
,
65
,
413n27
; name change to Jordan,
41
,
412n14
.
See also
Jordan

transportation: airlifts in 1973 War,
129
,
131
,
424n59
; imports in equipment for,
377
; postal system,
25
; road building,
59
,
200
,
320
; steamships,
25
; telegraph lines,
27
,
30
.
See also
airline violence; canals; motor vehicles; railways; rivers

treaties: Balfour Declaration (1917),
37
,
39
,
41
,
42–43
,
44
; borders and national designations,
39
,
44
,
50
; Geneva Convention (1947),
318
; Iran-Iraq (1975),
173
; Jordan-Israel peace (1994),
191
,
403
; Lausanne (1923),
28
; San Remo Conference (April 1920),
39
,
44
; Sèvres (August 1920),
39
,
44
; Sinai I & II,
133
,
135
; Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916),
38–41
,
41
map,
44
,
412n19
; U.S.-Iran mutual military agreement (1959),
173
; Versailles,
43
; water,
403
.
See also
Oslo Accords; peace process, Arab-Israeli; summits

tribalism: Iran,
57
,
143
; Jordan and,
236
; oil monarchies,
215
,
232–34
; Quraysh,
14
,
19
; tribal corporations,
233
; Turkic,
22
,
28
;
uymaqs,
29
,
30
.
See also
nomadic tribes; ruling families

Tudeh Party, Iran,
150
,
161

Tunisia,
1
,
217–22
; Al-Nahda,
217
,
222
,
251
,
259
,
282
,
437n32
; Arab Spring and revolution (2011),
5
,
217
,
251–52
,
267
,
275
,
291–95
,
386
;
beylik,
99
,
104
,
105
; Bourguiba,
39
,
100
,
105–6
,
114
,
116–17
,
215
,
219
; Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD),
271
; constitutions,
5
,
106
; cultural legitimation,
279
; and democracy,
282
; economic development,
351
,
357
,
364
; exclusionary state,
215–19
,
222
; French in,
3
,
38
,
47–49
,
98–106
,
218
; GDP,
352
; al-Ghannouchi,
257
,
258
; inclusionary state,
215
; independence,
100
,
103–5
,
218
; Islamic expansion into,
17
; languages,
3
; liberalization,
219
,
283
;
mukhaberat,
217
,
220
; and Nasser,
114
,
116
; national charter,
281
; nationalism,
73
,
100
,
103–7
; Ottomans,
23
,
46
,
47
,
50
,
106
; PLO,
311
,
325
; political opposition,
217
,
251–53
,
258–59
,
291
,
292
,
296
; political parties,
100
,
104–5
,
107
,
218
,
219
,
222
,
251–52
,
258–59
,
271
,
282
; “presidential monarchy,”
269
,
270
; pro-Western state,
219
; urban areas,
11
; youth population,
266
.
See also
Ben Ali, Zein el-Abidine