The Modern Middle East (114 page)

Rif War,
48

rights,
387–88
; Arab Israeli,
246
; Israeli and Palestinian right to exist,
77–79
,
84
,
106
,
300
,
302
,
307
,
316–17
,
329
,
345
;
mukhaberat
states,
221
; national security vs.,
213
; Palestinian refugee right of return,
329
,
332–37
,
344
; quasi-democratic states,
239
,
242
; voting,
94
fig,
147
,
240
,
245–46
; women’s,
94
fig,
147
,
240
,
256
,
284
,
387–88
.
See also
human rights abuses

riots: cost-of-living,
356
; Egyptian vs. British (1919),
46
; Iranis vs. Pahlavi state,
147
,
149
,
150
,
152–53
; Jordan’s “bread riots” (1980s),
191
,
230
; Morocco,
230
,
356
; Palestinian vs. British (1929),
87
.
See also
revolutions

rivers: cities along,
12
,
17
,
20
; cradles of civilizations,
12
,
33
; water sources,
400–404
.
See also
Jordan River

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia,
12
,
62
,
63
,
200

road building,
59
,
200
,
320

Roman Empire,
10
,
50

Roosevelt, Franklin D.,
197

Rothschild, Lord,
42
,
43

Rothschild family,
76

ruling bargain,
218
,
268–98
; and democracy,
273
,
280–98
; economic development,
211–12
,
360
,
365
; four primary pillars,
273–74
; state-imposed,
273
,
290
; unraveling,
272–81
,
297–98

ruling families,
229–37
; corporatism,
230
,
233–34
,
277
; oil monarchies,
182
,
186
,
229–37
,
372
.
See also
al-Assad family; Jordan’s Hashemite ruling family; Morocco’s monarchy; Pahlavi state; Saud clan

Rumsfeld, Donald,
204

Rushdie, Salman,
159
,
227

Russians: Armenians,
27
,
53
; Balfour Declaration and,
42–43
; and British rule in India,
36
; communist revolution (1917),
28
,
41
,
43
; Cossack brigade,
55
; and Iran,
31
,
32
,
55
,
57
,
61
,
110
,
142–43
,
150
,
168
fig,
348
; Jews,
42
,
74
,
303
,
305
; Ottomans and,
23–24
,
27
,
28
; Quartet on the Middle East,
343
; republic,
191
; Sykes-Picot Agreement exclusion,
41
; and U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003),
204
.
See also
Soviets

Saadet party, Turkey,
259

al-Sabah family,
182
,
233
,
234
; Sheikh Jaber,
182

Sadat, Anwar,
108–9
,
127–34
,
177
; Arabs disassociating from,
109
,
134
,
189
,
192
,
193
,
326
,
327
,
455n83
; assassination (1981),
134
,
228
; Camp David Accord (1978),
134
,
325–27
,
455n83
; constitution,
268–69
; electric-shock diplomacy,
133
; The Hero of the Crossing,
133
,
134
;
infitah
(open door policy),
134
,
137
,
219
,
351
,
372
; and Islamism,
199
,
228
; Jerusalem trip,
133
,
326
; 1973 war,
108–9
,
127–30
,
130
fig,
132–34
,
326
; peace process,
109
,
133–34
,
325–27
,
424n69
; portraits,
130
fig,
437–38n36
; shah of Iran and,
158
; state types,
215
,
219
,
220
,
228
,
229
; U.S. and,
133–34
,
198
,
325–27

Saddam Hussein,
172–90
,
205
fig,
192
,
199
,
217
,
271–72
; and Baʿthists,
173–75
,
177
,
188
,
438n45
; capture/trial/execution,
205
fig,
206
; conspiracy theories,
183–84
,
188
; inclusionary state,
214
,
223–27
,
367–68
,
437n26
; Iran-Iraq War,
172–82
,
208
,
227
,
282
; military rank,
174
,
429n7
,
437n26
; and Nasser,
137–38
,
173
,
174
,
177
,
209
; Pan-Arabism,
137–38
,
193
; patrimonialism,
276
; personal politics,
177
,
223–27
,
269
,
276
,
429n9
; Project for the New American Century vs.,
434n80
; Qadisiyya,
175
,
227
; “republic of fear,”
189–90
,
206
,
226
; Second Gulf War and,
182–89
,
208
,
282
; statue toppled,
202
fig,
205
.
See also
Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003)

Saddam overthrow/U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003),
4–5
,
189
,
201–9
,
226
,
337
; authoritarian hard-liners strengthened by,
297
; British occupation forces,
207
fig;
casualties,
206
,
435n85
; Iranis and,
203
,
403
; Iraqi state’s classification before,
226
; Saddam statue toppled,
202
fig,
205
; unofficial nationalism and,
276
; U.S. occupation after,
189
,
201–7
,
337
; U.S. withdrawal (2009–11),
5
,
207

Sadr, Ayatollah Muhammad Baqir,
173

Safavids,
22
,
23
,
28–30
,
33
,
411n65

Said, Ali Ahmad (Adonis),
257
,
450n37

Said, Edward,
330
,
346
,
418n35

Said, Şeyh,
53

Saladin,
21

Salafists,
259–60

Salal, Abdullah,
422n22

Saleh, Ali Abdullah,
290
,
296

Salehi, Ali Akbar,
168
fig

Saljuqs,
20
,
21–22

Sanaa, Yemen,
12

San Remo Conference (April 1920),
39
,
44

al-Sanusi, Muhammad,
50

Sanusi Sufi order,
50

Sassanids,
9–10
,
11
,
17
,
18

Saud, King (son of Ibn Saud),
64
,
233

Saud clan,
39
,
42
,
51
,
62–66
,
233–34
; bin Laden and,
200
,
260
; clergy incorporated by,
256
; corporatism,
233–34
,
277
; Crown Prince Faisal,
65
,
233
; Ibn Saud (Abdel Aziz ibn Abd el-Rahman),
62–66
,
236
,
415n77
; King Abdullah,
343
; king as Custodian of Islam’s Two Holy Mosques,
282
,
439n77
; King Fahd,
271
,
439n77
; King Saud (son of Ibn Saud),
64
,
233
; population,
233–34
; princely privileges,
233–34
,
439n74
; Prince Talal,
233
; U.S. and,
64
,
198
,
199
,
260

Saudi Arabia,
62–66
; agriculture,
6
,
63
,
354
; Arab-Israeli wars,
118
; and Arab nationalism,
192
; Arab Spring and uprisings (2011),
275
,
295
; Aramco,
63–64
,
416n83
; Ben Ali exile,
292
,
387
; bin Laden and,
200
,
201
,
260
; birth of,
39
,
51
,
62–66
,
232
; Buraydah,
12
; conspiracy theories,
184
,
274
; corporatism,
233–34
,
277
; cultural niche,
279
; domestic politics,
65
,
250
,
271
; economic development,
63–64
,
352
,
354
,
385
; executions,
369
; GDP,
352
; globalization and,
382
; Iran-Iraq War,
181–82
; Islamic fundamentalists,
261
; Islam used by,
234
,
255
,
282
; Lebanon mediation
by,
249
; national consultative council,
271
; oil,
63–64
,
137
,
198
,
203
,
352
,
362
,
416n83
; and political opposition,
250
,
255
; rentierism,
459–60n45
; repression,
215
,
268
; Riyadh,
12
,
62
,
63
,
200
; and Sadat initiative,
455n83
; Second Gulf War,
184
,
185
,
186
; sultanistic state,
214
,
216
,
232
,
233–35
; Taʾif Accord (1972),
248–49
,
288–89
; U.S. and,
64
,
192
,
198
,
199
,
200
,
260
; U.S. targets attacked in (1995 and 1996),
195
,
200
; and Yemeni civil war,
115
,
116
.
See also
Mecca; Medina; Saud clan

SAVAK, Iran,
145–52

science and technology,
34
,
389

Second Gulf War (1990–91),
4
,
172
,
182–91
,
194
,
208–9
,
406
; Bush popularity during,
201–2
; casualties,
185
,
186
; and domestic pressures for liberalization,
234
; “highway of death,”
183
fig,
187–88
; Iraqi military,
183
fig,
184–89
; Kuwait invasion,
172–73
,
182–91
,
208
,
229
,
282
,
327
; Operation Desert Shield,
186
; Operation Desert Storm,
187
,
431n38
; U.S.-led coalition,
171
,
184
,
186
,
190
,
208
,
327
,
431n36
; war of miscalculations,
184
; women mourning,
187
fig

Second World War (1939–45),
36
,
67
; French defeat,
100
; Iran and,
32
,
61
,
142–43
,
348
; Italian defeat,
50
,
99
; Jews,
51
,
77
,
82
,
106
; Nazis/Holocaust,
51
,
82
,
301
; and trade,
348
,
381

secularism,
263
; intellectuals,
257
,
262
,
263
,
284
; Iran,
59–60
,
415n66
; nationalist,
106
,
254–55
,
262
,
301–16
,
450n37
; official Islam,
257
; Palestinian,
301–16
,
450n37
; politicization of Islam vs.,
255
,
261
; Turkey,
53
,
55
,
66
,
242–44
,
259
; Zionist,
301–12
.
See also
modernism