After Tamerlane (77 page)

43
. The difficulties of Russian military advance into the southern steppes are explained in W. C. Fuller,
Strategy and Power in Russia, 1600–1914
(New York, 1992).

44
. See E. Keenan, ‘Muscovy and Kazan: Some Introductory Remarks on the Pattern of Steppe Diplomacy',
Slavic Review
26, 4 (1967), p. 553. Also A. S. Donnelly,
The Russian Conquest of Bashkiria 1552–1740
(New Haven and London, 1968) for a general account of Russia's steppe expansion.

45
. For a suggestive parallel, F. Barth,
Nomads of South Persia
(Oslo, 1964), pp. 106–11.

46
. Keenan, ‘Muscovy and Kazan', p. 555.

47
. See the cautious conclusions in P. Bushkovitch,
The Merchants of Muscovy 1580–1650
(Cambridge, 1980), pp. 93–101.

48
. M. Khodarkovsky,
Where Two Worlds Meet
(Ithaca, NY, 1992), ch. 3.

49
. See W. D. Allen (ed.),
Russian Embassies to the Georgian Kings (1589–1605)
, Hakluyt Society,2nd Series, 138 (2 vols., Cambridge, 1970), vol. 1, pp. 69–71.

50
. For this interpretation, R. Hellie,
Enserfment and Military Change in Muscovy
(Chicago and London, 1971) and J. H. L. Keep,
Soldiers of the Tsar
(Oxford, 1985), pp. 47–8.

51
. Hellie,
Enserfment
, p. 164.

52
. Billington,
Icon
, pp. 102–4.

53
. E.S. Forster (ed.),
The Turkish Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq
(Oxford, 1927), pp. 111–12.

54
. For the background to this conflict, Shai Har-El,
The Struggle for Domination in the Middle East: The Ottoman–Mamluk War 1485–1491
(Leiden, 1995).

55
. Forster,
Turkish Letters
, p. 112.

56
. By 1528 the Ottomans had a standing army of some 87,000. See H. Inalcik, ‘The Ottoman State: Economy and Society 1300–1600', in H. Inalcik with D. Quataert (eds.),
An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1914
(Cambridge, 1994), p. 88.

57
. For Ottoman sea power, P. Brummett,
Ottoman Sea Power and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery
(Albany, NY, 1994).

58
. Ibid., p. 174; A. Hess, ‘The Evolution of the Ottoman Seaborne Empire in the Age of Oceanic Discoveries, 1453–1525',
American Historical Review
75, 7 (1970), pp. 201–22.

59
. P.F. Sugar,
Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule 1354–1804
(London, 1977), p. 109.

60
. P. Mantran,
La Vie quotidienne à Constantinople au temps de Soleiman le Magnifique et ses successeurs
(Paris, 1965), p. 295.

61
. See C. Kafadar,
Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State
(Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1995), p. 153.

62
. Forster,
Turkish Letters
, pp. 111–12.

63
. The relative success of the Ottoman economy has been much debated. The gloomier views in D. Goffman,
Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650
(Seattle, 1990) and B. Masters,
The Origins of Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo
(New York, 1988) can be compared with those in S. Faroqhi, ‘In Search of Ottoman History', in H. Berktay and S. Faroqhi (eds.),
NewApproaches to State and Peasant in Ottoman History
(London, 1992), and the discussion in S. Faroqhi, ‘Crisis and Change, 1590–1699', in Inalcik with Quataert (eds.),
Ottoman Empire
, pp. 474–531.

64
. H. Islamoglu-Inan,
State and Peasant in the Ottoman Empire
(Leiden, 1994) for the link between tax-farming and commercialization.

65
. See Rifa'at Ali Abou El-Haj,
The Formation of the Modern State: The Ottoman Empire, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries
(Albany, NY, 1991), p. 10.

66
. These conflicts are brilliantly surveyed in W. D. Allen,
Problems of Turkish Power in the Sixteenth Century
(London, 1963).

67
. For the general setting, W. Barthold,
An Historical Geography of Iran
(Princeton, 1984).

68
. P. Jackson and W. Lockhart (eds.),
The Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 6:
The Timurid and Safavid Periods
(Cambridge, 1986), pp. 227–8.

69
. For Shia Islam in Iran, H. Halm,
Shiism
(Edinburgh, 1991), pp. 91 ff.

70
. See J. J. Reid, ‘Tribalism and Society in Islamic Iran, 1500–1629', PhD thesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1978.

71
. Jackson and Lockhart,
Cambridge History of Iran
, pp. 246,263. See also the chapter by R. M. Savory on Safavid administration in the same volume.

72
. D. Navridi, ‘Socio-Economic and Political Change in Safavid Iran in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries', PhD thesis, Vanderbilt University, 1977, pp. 71 ff.

73
. J.B. Tavernier,
Voyages en Perse
(Paris, 1970), pp. 251–2. Tavernier made his first visit in 1639. His
Voyages
was originally published in 1670.

74
. Navridi, ‘Safavid Iran', p. 168.

75
. J. Fryer,
A NewAccount of East India and Persia, Being Nine Years' Travels, 1672–1681
, ed. W. Crooke (3 vols., London, 1909–15), vol. 2, pp. 246–50.

76
. Even in the nineteenth century, between a third and one-half of Iran's population were nomadic and tribal. A. Wink,
Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World
, vol. 2:
Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11 th–13th Centuries
(Leiden, 1997), p. 15.

77
. Halm,
Shiism
, pp. 94–8.

78
. For Babur's origins and early career, S. A. M. Adshead,
Central Asia in World History
(London, 1993), pp. 131 ff.

79
. J.F. Richards,
The Mughal Empire
(Cambridge, 1993), p. 6.

80
. S.F. Dale,
Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade 1600–1750
(Cambridge, 1994), pp. 6–7.

81
.
Baburnama (Memoirs of Babur)
, trans. A. S. Beveridge (Delhi, 1921, 1989), pp. 531–2.

82
. Richards,
Mughal Empire
, p. 2.

83
. R.M. Eaton,
The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier 1204–1760
(London, 1993), p. 36.

84
. For the amirs, Richards,
Mughal Empire
, p. 19. In 1595, two-thirds of Akbar's nobility were of Turkic or Iranian origin. See Eaton,
Bengal Frontier
, P. 165.

85
. T. Raychaudhuri and I. Habib (eds.),
The Cambridge Economic History of India
, vol. 1:
c.1200–1750
(Cambridge, 1982), p. 184; Richards,
Mughal Empire
, p. 66.

86
. Raychaudhuri and Habib (eds.),
Economic History
, vol. 1, p. 266.

87
. D. Streusand,
The Formation of the Mughal Empire
(Delhi, 1989), p. 71.

88
. Ibid., p. 130.

89
. Ibid., p. 131.

90
. See F. C. R. Robinson, ‘Perso-Islamic Culture in India from the 17th to the Early 20th Centuries', in R. L. Canfield (ed.),
Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective
(Cambridge, 1991), pp. 110–11.

91
. Adshead,
Central Asia
, p. 131.

92
. Dale,
Indian Merchants
, pp. 15,21; Raychaudhuri and Habib (eds.),
Economic History
, vol. 1, for a survey of the Mughal economy.

93
. As safe as France or Italy, noted Tavernier. Raychaudhuri and Habib (eds.),
Economic History
, vol. 1, p. 353.

94
. For these aspects, see ibid., pp. 288–301.

95
. I owe this suggestion to an unpublished paper by David Washbrook.

96
. E.L. Farmer,
Early Ming Government: The Evolution of Dual Capitals
(Cambridge, Mass., 1976), p. 19.

97
. J. Dardess, ‘The End of Yuan Rule in China', in H. Franke and D. Twitchett (eds.),
The Cambridge History of China
, vol. 6:
Alien Regimes and Border States,907–1368
(Cambridge, 1994), pp. 581–2.

98
. See R. Huang,
Taxation and Governmental Finance in Sixteenth-Century Ming China
(Cambridge, 1974), p. 55.

99
. Huang,
Taxation and Finance
, p. 310.

100
. For Ming relations with Tamerlane and his successors, Joseph E. Fletcher, ‘China and Central Asia, 1368–1884', in J. K. Fairbank (ed.),
The Chinese World Order: Traditional China's Foreign Relations
(Cambridge, Mass., 1968).

101
. A. Waldron,
The Great Wall: From History to Myth
(Cambridge, 1990) provides an excellent account of the strategic debates under the later Ming emperors.

102
. S. Jagchid and V. J. Symons,
Peace, War and Trade along the Great Wall
(Bloomington, Ind., 1989), p. 86.

103
. See D. O. Flynn, ‘Comparing the Tokugawa Shogunate and Hapsburg Spain', in J. D. Tracy (ed.),
The Rise of Merchant Empires
(Cambridge, 1990).

104
. See J. E. Wills, ‘Maritime China from Wang Chih to Shih Lang', in J. Spence and J. E. Wills (eds.),
From Ming to Ch'ing
(New Haven, 1979), p. 211.

105
. See A. Reid, ‘An Age of Commerce in Southeast Asian History',
Modern Asian Studies
24, 1 (1990), pp. 9–10.

106
. See R. von Glahn,
Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China 1000–1700
(Berkeley, 1997); F. W. Mote and D. Twitchett (eds.),
The Cambridge History of China
, vol. 7:
Ming Dynasty 1368–1644
, pt 1 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 587–8; Reid, ‘Age of Commerce', pp. 10,21–3.

107
. J.W. Hall (ed.),
The Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 4:
Early Modern Japan
(Cambridge, 1991), p. 321.

108
. See M. Jansen,
China in the Tokugawa World
(Cambridge, Mass., 1992).

109
. See Wills, ‘Maritime China'.

110
. Ibid., p. 244.

111
. P. Burke,
Tradition and Innovation in Renaissance Italy
(pbk edn, London, 1974), p. 306.

112
. In his hugely influential
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy
, published in Basle in 1860. However, the book did not become widely known until the 1880s.

113
. See Jacob Burckhardt,
The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy
(Eng. trans. London, 1944), pt 1.

114
. F. Braudel,
The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II
(1966; Eng. trans. 2 vols., London, 1972–3), vol. 2, p. 913.

115
. See G. Parker,
The Grand Strategy of Philip II
(London, 1998).

116
. See G. Muto, ‘The Spanish System', in R. J. Bonney (ed.),
Economic Systems and State Finance
(Oxford, 1995), pp. 246,248.

117
. See A. Peroton-Dumon, ‘The Pirate and the Emperor', in Tracy (ed.),
Political Economy of Merchant Empires
, pp. 196–227.

118
. See D. F. Lach,
Asia in the Making of Europe
, vol. 1:
The Century of Discovery
(Chicago, 1964), ch. 4.

119
. A.R. Mitchell, ‘The European Fisheries in Early Modern History', in E. E. Rich and C. H. Wilson (eds.),
The Cambridge Economic History of Europe
, vol. 5:
The Economic Organisation of Early Modern Europe
(Cambridge, 1977), pp. 157–8.

120
. W. L. Schurz,
The Manila Galleon
(New York, 1939); H. Kamen,
Spain's Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power
(London, 2002).

121
. For Philip's ‘messianic imperialism', G. Parker,
Grand Strategy
, ch. 3.

122
. For the effects of America, see J. H. Elliott, ‘Final Reflections', in K. O. Kupperman (ed.),
America in European Consciousness 1493–1750
(Chapel Hill, NC, and London, 1995), p. 406.

123
. See J. de Vries,
The European Economy in the Age of Crisis 1600–1750
(pbk edn, Cambridge, 1976), p. 130.

124
. See A.W. Crosby,
The Columbian Exchange
(Westport, Conn., 1972);.A.J.R. Russell-Wood,
A World on the Move
(New York, 1992).

125
. See B. Lewis,
Cultures in Conflict
(Oxford, 1995) for Ottoman indifference to the Americas.

1
. J.B. Brebner,
The Explorers of North America
(pbk edn, New York, 1955), p. 255.

2
. Ibid., p. 255.

3
. Ibid., p. 299.

4
. The classic study is J. Baker,
History of Geographical Exploration
(London, 1931).

5
. See J. C. Beaglehole,
The Life of Captain James Cook
(London, 1974).

6
. See R. Law, ‘ ‘‘Here is no resisting the country'': The Realities of Power in Afro-European Relations on the West African Slave Coast',
Itinerario
17, 2 (1994), pp. 56–64.

7
. For the
bandeirantes
, C. R. Boxer,
The Golden Age of Brazil 1695–1750
(London, 1962), pp. 31–2.

8
. N. Canny,
Europeans on the Move
(Oxford, 1994), p. 265.

9
. F. Jennings,
The Invasion of America
(pbk edn, London, 1976), pp. 30,178–9,300.