After Tamerlane (78 page)

10
. T. Burnard, ‘European Migration to Jamaica, 1655–1780',
William and Mary Quarterly
, 3rd Series,52, 4 (1996), pp. 769–96.

11
. B. Bailyn,
Voyagers to the West
(London, 1986), p. 24.

12
. D. Eltis, ‘Free and Coerced Transatlantic Migration: Some Comparisons',
American Historical Review
88, 2 (1983), pp. 252–5.

13
. R.S. Dunn,
Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies 1624–1713
(Chapel Hill, NC, 1972).

14
. P.R.P. Coelho and R. A. McGuire, ‘African and European Bound Labour: The Biological Consequences of Economic Choice',
Journal of Economic History
57, 1 (1997), p. 108.

15
. B. Solow, ‘Slavery and Colonization', in B. Solow (ed.),
Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System
(Cambridge, 1991), p. 29.

16
. I. Blanchard,
Russia's Age of Silver
(London, 1989).

17
. For sugar consumption in Europe, S. Mintz,
Sweetness and Power
(pbk edn, London, 1986), p. 67.

18
. K.N. Chaudhuri,
The Trading World of Asia and the East India Company 1660–1750
(Cambridge, 1978), pp. 7–10; L. Dermigny,
La Chine et l'Occident: Le Commerce à Canton 1719–1833
(3 vols., Paris, 1964), vol. 2, p. 691.

19
. See R. Davis, ‘English Foreign Trade 1660–1700',
Economic History Review
, New Series,7, 2 (1954), pp. 150–66; R. Davis, ‘English Foreign Trade, 1700–1774',
Economic History Review
, New Series,15, 2 (1962), pp. 285–303.

20
. N. Zahedieh, ‘Trade, Plunder and Economic Development in Early English Jamaica, 1655–1689',
Economic History Review
, New Series,39, 2 (1986), pp. 205–22; K. Glamann, ‘The Changing Pattern of Trade', in E. E. Rich and C. H. Wilson (eds.),
The Cambridge Economic History of Europe
, vol. 5:
The Economic Organisation of Early Modern Europe
(Cambridge, 1977), p. 191.

21
. See J. de Vries,
The European Economy in the Age of Crisis 1600–1750
(pbk edn, Cambridge, 1976).

22
. Ibid., p. 116.

23
. Ibid., p. 125.

24
. Ibid., p. 181.

25
. See for example J. H. Plumb, ‘The Commercialization of Leisure', in Neil McKendrick, John Brewer and J. H. Plumb,
The Birth of a Consumer Society: The Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England
(London, 1982).

26
. For this argument, I. Wallerstein,
The Modern World System
(2 vols., London, 1974, 1980).

27
. De Vries,
Crisis
, p. 142.

28
. For the Royal Africa Company, K. G. Davies,
The Royal Africa Company
(London, 1962). For the South Seas Company, J. Carswell,
The South Sea Bubble
(Stanford, 1960). The declining profitability of the Dutch East India Company and the failure of the two Dutch West India Companies are discussed in J. de Vries and Ad van der Woude,
The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815
(Cambridge, 1997), pp. 463–4,468.

29
. See Holden Furber,
Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient 1600–1800
(Minneapolis, 1976; repr. New Delhi, 2004), pp. 334–9.

30
. See M. Korner, ‘Expenditure', in R. J. Bonney (ed.),
Economic Systems and State Finance
(Oxford, 1995), pp. 393–422.

31
. See N. Henshall,
The Myth of Absolutism
(London, 1992).

32
. See J. Berenger,
Finances et absolutisme autrichiens dans la seconde moitié du xviime siècle
(2 vols., Paris, 1975), vol. 2, p. 662; R. J. W. Evans,
The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy
(Oxford, 1979), pp. 96–9.

33
. E. Le Roy Ladurie,
L'Ancien Régime
(2 vols., Paris, 1991), vol. 2, p. 26.

34
. The phrase comes from J. Henretta,
‘Salutary Neglect'
(Princeton, 1972).

35
. J.H. Parry,
The Spanish Seaborne Empire
(London, 1966), ch. 14.

36
. D. Ogg,
Europe of the Ancien Régime 1715–83
(London, 1965), pp. 41–4, citing J. H. Bielefeld's
Institutions politiques
(1760).

37
. Parry,
Empire
, pp. 202–5.

38
. E.S. Morgan,
American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia
(New York, 1975), ch. 13.

39
. D. Baugh, ‘Maritime Strength and Atlantic Commerce', in L. Stone (ed.),
An Imperial State at War
(London, 1994), pp. 185–223.

40
. B. Bailyn,
The Origins of American Politics
(pbk edn, New York, 1968), pp. 72–4.

41
. Korner, ‘Expenditure', p. 416.

42
. R.J. Bonney, ‘The Eighteenth Century II: The Struggle for Great Power Status and the End of the Old Fiscal Regime', in Bonney (ed.),
Economic Systems
, pp. 322 ff.

43
. M. Anderson,
The War of the Austrian Succession 1740–48
(London, 1995), pp. 25 ff.

44
. See B. Lenman,
Britain's Colonial Wars, 1688–1783
(London, 2001).

45
. For campaigning in ‘Danubia', J. Stoye,
Marsigli's Europe
(London, 1994).

46
. See W. C. Fuller,
Strategy and Power in Russia, 1600–1914
(New York, 1992).

47
. T. Smollett,
The Adventures of Roderick Random
(1748; Everyman edn, London, 1927), ch. 34, p. 191.

48
. G.W. Forrest,
The Life of Lord Clive
(2 vols., London, 1918), vol. 1, pp. 26–30.

49
. A. Osiander,
The States System of Europe 1640–1990
(Oxford, 1994), pp. 78–81.

50
. For the Spanish ‘system', R. A. Stradling,
Europe and the Decline of Spain
(London, 1981).

51
. Anderson,
Austrian Succession
, p. 58.

52
. W. Goetzmann,
NewLands, NewMen: America and the Second Great Age of Discovery
(pbk edn, London, 1987), pp. 62–4.

53
. J. Tully,
An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts
(Cambridge, 1993), ch. 5.

54
. See J. Harrison and P. Laslett,
The Library of John Locke
(Oxford, 1965).

55
. Dermigny,
La Chine
, vol. 1, pp. 19–22.

56
. Montesquieu,
Lettres persanes
(1721), letter121.

57
. Montesquieu,
The Spirit of the Laws
(1748; Eng. trans. New York, 1949), vol. 1, pp. 301–4.

58
. Ibid., p. 368.

59
. Quoted in N. A. M. Rodger,
The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain 1649–1815
(London, 2004), p. 235.

60
. J.-P. Rubiès, ‘New Worlds and Renaissance Ethnology',
History and Anthropology
6,2–3 (1993), pp. 157–97.

61
. M.J. Anderson,
Britain's Discovery of Russia 1553–1815
(London, 1958), p. 98.

62
. See Wallerstein,
Modern World System
, vol. 2.

63
. J. Billington,
The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture
(London, 1970), pp. 146,154,166.

64
. J.M. Letiche and B. Dmytryshyn,
Russian Statecraft: The
Politika
of Iurii Krizhanich
(Oxford, 1985), p. xlvii.

65
. G.V. Lantzeff and R. A. Pierce,
Eastward to Empire
(Montreal and London, 1973), pp. 139 ff.

66
. Blanchard,
Russia's Age of Silver
, p. 90.

67
. For this process, A. S. Donnelly,
The Russian Conquest of Bashkiria 1552–1740
(New Haven and London, 1968).

68
. The best account of Peter's policies is now L. Hughes,
Russia in the Age of Peter the Great
(London, 1998). For the senate pronouncement, p. 296.

69
. O. Subtelny,
Ukraine: A History
(Toronto, 1988), p. 182.

70
. S.H. Baron, ‘Who were the
Gosti
?', in his
Muscovite Russia: Collected Essays
(London, 1980).

71
. Blanchard,
Russia's Age of Silver
, pp. 218 ff. By 1710 the tax burden was equal to 64 per cent of the grain harvest, a rough approximation to the national product. See R. Hellie, ‘Russia', in R. J. Bonney (ed.),
The Rise of the Fiscal State in Europe c.1200–1815
(Oxford, 1999), p. 497.

72
. Hughes,
Russia
, chs.7,9.

73
. B.H. Sumner,
Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia
(London, 1951), pp. 55,72.

74
. Kliuchevskii cited in ‘The Weber Thesis and Early Modern Russia', p. 333, in Baron,
Muscovite Russia
.

75
. Letiche and Dmytryshyn,
Russian Statecraft
, pp. lviii–lix.

76
. S.A.M. Adshead,
China in World History
(3rd edn, London, 1995), p. 243.

77
. ‘Ch'ing' meant ‘pure'.

78
. L.D. Kessler,
Kang-hsi and the Consolidation of Ch'ing Rule 1661–1684
(Chicago, 1976), p. 10.

79
. See J. E. Wills, ‘Maritime China from Wang Chih to Shih Lang', in J. Spence and J. E. Wills (eds.),
From Ming to Ch'ing
(New Haven, 1979), p. 226.

80
. Kessler,
Kang-hsi
, p. 86.

81
. V.S. Miasnikov,
The Ch'ing Empire and the Russian State in the 17th Century
(1980; Eng. trans. London, 1985), p. 183.

82
. Wills, ‘Maritime China', p. 228.

83
. J.E. Wills, ‘Ch'ing Relations with the Dutch 1662–1690', in J. K. Fairbank (ed.),
The Chinese World Order: Traditional China's Foreign Relations
(Cambridge, Mass., 1968), p. 245.

84
. See Joseph E. Fletcher, ‘China and Central Asia, 1368–1884', in Fairbank (ed.),
Chinese World Order
.

85
. J. Spence,
Emperor of China: Self-portrait of K'ang-hsi
(New York, 1974), p. 9.

86
. Miasnikov,
Ch'ing Empire
, p. 94.

87
. Ibid., p. 286.

88
. Pei Huang,
Aristocracy at Work: A Study of the Yung-cheng Period
(Bloomington, Ind., 1974), p. 181.

89
. Huang,
Aristocracy
, p. 160; generally, B. Bartlett,
Monarchs and Ministers
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991).

90
. Adshead,
China
, p. 253.

91
. P.C. Perdue,
Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan 1500–1850
(Cambridge, Mass., 1987), p. 10.

92
. Ibid., p. 22.

93
. M. Elvin,
The Pattern of the Chinese Past
(London, 1973), p. 248.

94
. For the Kiangnan region and its cotton trade, M. Elvin, ‘Market Towns and Waterways: The County of Shanghai from 1480 to 1910', in M. Elvin,
Another History: Essays on China from a European Perspective
(Sydney, 1996), p. 109.

95
. For comparisons between the early modern economies of China and Europe, K. Pomeranz,
The Great Divergence: China, Europe and the Making of the Modern World Economy
(Princeton, 2000), pp. 106–7.

96
. Spence,
Emperor of China
, p. 78.

97
. Ibid., p. 83.

98
. R. J. Smith,
China's Cultural Heritage: The Ch'ing Dynasty 1644–1911
(Boulder, Colo., and London, 1983), pp. 190 ff.

99
. Ibid., p. 108.

100
. C. P. Fitzgerald,
The Southern Expansion of the Chinese People
(London, 1972), pp. 152–5.

101
. Peng Yoke, ‘China and Europe: Scientific and Technological Exchanges', in T. H. C. Lee (ed.),
China and Europe: Images and Influence in Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries
(Hong Kong, 1991), p. 196.

102
. F. H. Bray, ‘Some Problems Concerning the Transfer of Scientific and Technological Knowledge', in Lee (ed.),
China and Europe
, p. 16.

103
. Smith,
Cultural Heritage
, pp. 185–7.

104
. For two highly suggestive views of the long-run tendencies in Chinese political organization, J. A. Fogel,
Politics and Sinology: The Case of Naito Konan, 1866–1934
(Cambridge, Mass., 1984) and J. Schrecker,
The Chinese Revolution in Historical Perspective
(New York, 1991).

105
. C. Totman,
Early Modern Japan
(London, 1993), p. 140.

106
. Edo was the first city to reach a population of a million: see H. Jinnai, ‘The Spatial Structure of Edo', in C. Nakane and S. Oishi (eds.),
Tokugawa Japan: The Social and Economic Antecedents of Modern Japan
(Tokyo, 1990).

107
. Totman,
Early Modern Japan
, p. 149.

108
. S. Nakamura, ‘The Development of Rural Industry', in Nakane and Oishi (eds.),
Tokugawa Japan
, pp. 81–5.

109
. See E. Kato, ‘The Early Shogunate and Dutch Trade Policies', in L. Blussé and F. Gaastra (eds.),
Companies and Trade
(Leiden, 1981).

110
. A. Reid, ‘An Age of Commerce in Southeast Asian History',
Modern Asian Studies
24, 1 (1990), pp. 10,21.

111
. M. Jansen,
China in the Tokugawa World
(Cambridge, Mass., 1992), p. 16.