After Tamerlane (82 page)

101
. See Herbert P. Bix,
Peasant Protest in Japan 1590–1884
(New Haven, 1986), pp. 210–12; G. Roznan, ‘Social Change', in Jansen (ed.),
Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 5, p. 525.

102
. See ch. 4.

103
. D. Quataert, ‘The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914', in H. Inalcik with D. Quataert (eds.),
An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1914
(Cambridge, 1994), p. 881.

104
. Xavier de Planhol,
L'Islam et la mer: La Mosque et le matelot
(Paris, 2000), pp. 270–71. In fact the Turkish navy was the third largest in Europe, but performed very poorly.

105
. M. Todorova, ‘Midhat Pasha's Governorship of the Danubian Provinces', in C. E. Farah (ed.),
Decision-Making and Change in the Ottoman Empire
(Kirksville, Mo., 1993), pp. 115–23.

106
. See J. McCarthy,
Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims 1821–1922
(Princeton, 1995), pp. 37 ff.

107
. C. Clay, ‘The Financial Collapse of the Ottoman State', in D. Panzac (ed.),
Histoire économique de l'Empire Ottoman et de la Turquie (1326–1960)
(Aix, 1992), pp. 119,124.

108
. C. Issawi, ‘Middle East Economic Development 1815–1914', in A. Hourani, P. S. Khoury and M. C. Wilson (eds.),
The Modern Middle East
(London, 1993), p. 183.

109
. Thus Izmir (Smyrna) enjoyed easier links with Europe and America than with the Anatolian interior. See A. J. Toynbee,
The Western Question in Greece and Turkey
(London, 1922), p. 125.

110
. Issawi, ‘Middle East Economic Development', p. 190.

111
. See K. Fahmy,
All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, his Army and the Making of Modern Egypt
(Cairo, 2002).

112
. C. Issawi,
Egypt: An Economic and Social Analysis
(London, 1947), p. 14.

113
. See J. Berque,
Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution
(London, 1972), pp. 88–94.

114
. J. R. McCoan,
Egypt
(New York, 1876), p. 91.

115
. The best modern study is D. A. Farnie,
East and West of Suez: The Suez Canal in History, 1854–1956
(Oxford, 1969).

116
. For the best study of Egypt's social and political crisis, A. SchÖ lch,
‘Egypt for the Egyptians': The Socio-Political Crisis in Egypt, 1878–1882
(London, 1981).

117
. E. Abrahamian,
Iran between Two Revolutions
(Princeton, 1982), p. 28.

118
. See H. Algar,
Religion and State in Iran 1795–1906
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969), ch 1.

119
. H. Algar,
Mirza Malkum Khan
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1973), pp. 24 ff.

120
. A. K. S. Lambton,
Qajar Persia
(London, 1987), pp. 20,21,44.

121
. P. Avery, G. R. G. Hambly and C. Melville (eds.),
The Cambridge History of Iran
, vol. 7:
From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic
(Cambridge, 1991), p. 726.

122
. Lambton,
Qajar Persia
, p. 292.

123
. Perhaps 150Europeans lived in Iran in the mid nineteenth century; still only 800 in 1890. Ibid., p. 207.

1
. See H. J. Mackinder, ‘The Geographical Pivot of History',
Geographical Journal
23, 4 (1904), pp. 421–37.

2
.
The Times
, 15 Sept. 1875, quoted in N. Pelcovits,
Old China Hands and the Foreign Office
(New York, 1948), p. 101.

3
. Frederick Jackson Turner, ‘The Significance of the Frontier in American History' (1893), reprinted in his
The Frontier in American History
(New York, 1920).

4
. For a characteristic statement, B. Kidd,
The Control of the Tropics
(London, 1898).

5
. Naito Konan's article ‘Shosekai' (‘Small World') was published in 1888. For a study of his views, J. Fogel,
Politics and Sinology: The Case of Naito Konan, 1866–1934
(Cambridge, Mass., 1984), pp. 41,50.

6
. J. Bryce,
The Relations between the Advanced and Backward Peoples
(Oxford, 1902), pp. 6–7.

7
. Ibid., p. 13.

8
. C. N. Pearson,
National Life and Character
(London, 1893), pp. 89–90.

9
. See J. Forbes Munro,
Maritime Enterprise and Empire: Sir William Mackinnon and his Business Network, 1823–1893
(Woodbridge, 2003), ch. 7.

10
. For Rhodes's business empire, C. W. Newbury,
The Diamond Ring
(Oxford, 1989).

11
. For the crisis in Egypt, R. E. Robinson and J. A. Gallagher,
Africa and the Victorians
(London, 1961), chs.4,5; A. Schölch,
‘Egypt for the Egyptians': The Socio-Political Crisis in Egypt, 1879–1882
(London, 1981);J. R. I. Cole,
Colonialism and Revolution in the Middle East: The Social and Cultural Origins of the ‘Urabi Movement
(Princeton, 1993).

12
. For a fierce statement of this view by an ex-viceroy and British cabinet minister, B. Mallett,
Thomas George, Earl of Northbrook: A Memoir
(London, 1908), pp. 169–70.

13
. For a brilliant review of the conference and its significance, J.-L. Vellut,
Un centenaire 1885–1985: Les Relations Europe–Afrique au crible d'une commemoration
(Leiden, 1992).

14
. M. Klein,
Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa
(Cambridge, 1998), pp. 78–93.

15
. See A. S. Kanya-Forstner,
The Conquest of the Western Sudan
(Cambridge, 1969).

16
. See J. F. Munro,
Africa and the International Economy 1880–1960
(London, 1976), p. 67.

17
. For Goldie's career and the Royal Niger Company, J. Flint,
Sir George Goldie and the Making of Nigeria
(London, 1960); D. Wellesley,
Sir George Goldie: A Memoir
(London, 1934).

18
. Note by Goldie, 1 Jan. 1897, Rhodes House Library, Oxford, MSS Afr. S.88, Scarbrough MSS4.

19
. Goldie to Royal Niger Company council, 6 Feb. 1897, ibid.

20
. A. Hochschild,
King Leopold's Ghost
(London, 1999), p. 23, for this calculation and its basis.

21
. S. H. Nelson,
Colonialism in the Congo Basin, 1880–1940
(Athens, O., 1994), pp. 112–16. The new regime retained Leopold's practice of parcelling out the Congo among concessionaire companies.

22
. D. Beach,
War and Politics in Zimbabwe 1840–1900
(Harare, 1986); A. Keppel-Jones,
Rhodes and Rhodesia: The White Conquest of Zimbabwe
(Montreal, 1983).

23
. For a brilliant discussion of the disorienting effects of African travel on Europeans, J. Fabian,
Out of Our Minds: Reason and Madness in the Exploration of Central Africa
(London, 2000).

24
. William H. Schneider,
An Empire for the Masses: The French Popular Image of Africa, 1870–1900
(Westport, Conn., and London, 1982), pp. 6–7.

25
. Kanya-Forstner,
Conquest
, p. 263. Calculated at FF25=£1.

26
. C. M. Andrew,
Théophile Delcassé and the Making of the Entente Cordiale
(London, 1968), pp. 94–8.

27
. Ibid., p. 92.

28
. R. Waller, ‘The Maasai and the British: The Origins of an Alliance, 1895–1905',
Journal of African History
17, 4 (1976), pp. 529–53.

29
. Bill Nasson,
The South African War 1899–1902
(London, 1999) and his
Abram Esau's War: A Black South African War in the Cape 1899–1902
(Cambridge, 1991); P. Warwick,
Black People and the South African War 1899–1902
(Cambridge, 1983).

30
.
Parliamentary Debates, Lords
, 4th Series, vol. 30, p. 701 (14 Feb. 1895).

31
. J. Riis,
Howthe Other Half Lives
(New York, 1890).

32
. G. Brechin,
Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin
(Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1999), ch. 3.

33
. See N. Harper,
A Great and Powerful Friend
(St Lucia, 1987), ch. 1.

34
. Address as president of the American Historical Association, 1910,
American Historical Review
16, 2 (1911), pp. 217–33.

35
. R. E. Quirk,
An Affair of Honor: WoodrowWilson and the Occupation of Vera Cruz
(New York, 1962).

36
. H. and M. Sprout,
Towards a New Order of Sea Power
(Princeton, 1940), p. 288.

37
. W. Tilchin,
Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire
(New York, 1997), p. 236.

38
. G. N. Curzon,
Russia in Central Asia in 1889
(London, 1889), p. 316.

39
. B. H. Sumner,
A Survey of Russian History
(London, 1944), p. 362.

40
. G. Chisholm,
Handbook of Commercial Geography
(4th edn, London, 1908), pp. 583,609.

41
. By 1914, 25 per cent of French foreign investment had been placed in Russia. R. E. Cameron,
France and the Economic Development of Europe 1800–1914
(Princeton, 1961), p. 486.

42
. D. Moon, ‘Peasant Migration and the Settlement of Russia's Frontiers, 1550–1917',
Historical Journal
40, 4 (1997), pp. 859–93, esp. pp. 867–8.

43
. D. W. Treadgold,
The Great Siberian Migration
(Princeton, 1957), p. 13. By 1917 the figure was 7 million.

44
. M. Joffe, ‘Diamond in the Rough: The State, Entrepreneurs and Turkestan's Hidden Resources in Late Imperial Russia', in M. Siefert (ed.),
Extending the Borders of Russian History
(London, 2003), p. 185.

45
. The Russian population of the Russian Far East was 10,000 in 1860 and 300,000 by 1900. D. Dallin,
The Rise of Russia in Asia
(London, 1949), p. 14.

46
. See J. J. Stephan,
The Russian Far East: A History
(Stanford, 1996).

47
. Brilliantly discussed in A. Rieber, ‘Persistent Factors in Russian Foreign Policy', in H. Ragsdale (ed.),
Imperial Russian Foreign Policy
(Cambridge, 1993).

48
. Observations by Lord Sanderson, 21 Feb. 1907, in G. P. Gooch and H.
Temperley (eds.),
British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914
(12 vols., London, 1927–38), vol. 3, p. 430.

49
. I. H. Nish,
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance
(London, 1966).

50
. The classic analysis is still G. Monger,
The End of Isolation
(London, 1963).

51
. P. Mathias and M. M. Postan (eds.),
The Cambridge Economic History of Europe
, vol. 7:
The Industrial Economies: Capital, Labour and Enterprise
, pt 1:
Britain, France, Germany and Scandinavia
(Cambridge, 1978), p. 555.

52
. Germany's population in 1911, 65 million; Russia-in-Europe, 136million.

53
. For Bismarck's views on colonial expansion, O. Pflanze,
Bismarck and the Development of Germany
, vol. 3:
The Period of Fortification, 1880–1898
(Princeton, 1990), ch. 5.

54
. For official uncertainty about what Germany's world interests really were, W. Mommsen,
Imperial Germany 1867–1918
(1990; Eng. trans. London, 1995), p. 82.

55
. See I. L. D. Forbes, ‘German Informal Imperialism in South America before 1914',
Economic History Review
, New Series,31, 3 (1978), pp. 396–8.

56
. C. Peters,
England and the English
(Eng. trans. London, 1904), p. 388.

57
. J. Marseille,
Empire coloniale et capitalisme française
(Paris, 1984), p. 40.

58
. E. H. Jenkin,
A History of the French Navy
(London, 1973), pp. 307–9.

59
. Andrew,
Delcassé
, pp. 105 ff.

60
. See G. W. Gong,
The ‘Standard of Civilisation' in International Society
(Oxford, 1984).

61
. See W. Fischer and R. M. McInnis (eds.),
The Emergence of a World Economy 1500–1914
, pt2:
1850–1914
(Wiesbaden, 1986).

62
. A. J. H. Latham and L. Neal, ‘The International Market in Wheat and Rice, 1868–1914',
Economic History Review
, New Series,36, 2 (1983), pp. 260–75.

63
. W. Woodruff,
The Impact of Western Man: A Study of Europe's Role in the World Economy 1750–1960
(London, 1966), p. 313. Woodruff's estimate of £7.6billion may be compared with one of £8.3billion in C. Issawi, ‘Middle East Economic Development 1815–1914', in A. Hourani, P. S. Khoury and M. C. Wilson (eds.),
The Modern Middle East
(London, 1993), p. 183.

64
. For a lucid explanation, S. B. Saul,
Studies in British Overseas Trade 1870–1914
(Liverpool, 1960), ch. 3, ‘The Pattern of Settlements'.

65
. Ibid., pp. 203–7.

66
. C. Lipson,
Standing Guard: Protecting Foreign Capital in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
(London, 1985), ch. 2.

67
. J. R. Scobie, ‘Buenos Aires as a Commercial-Bureaucratic City',
American Historical Review
77, 4 (1972), p. 1045.

68
. R. Chandarvarkar,
The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India
(Cambridge, 1994), p. 23.