After Tamerlane (80 page)

39
. See N. F. R. Crafts,
British Economic Growth during the Industrial Revolution
(Oxford, 1985).

40
. See E. L. Jones,
The European Miracle: Environments, Economies and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia
(Cambridge, 1981).

41
. This is the central argument of Pomeranz,
Great Divergence
.

42
. See the suggestive remarks in D. Washbrook, ‘From Comparative Sociology to Global History: Britain and India in the Pre-History of Modernity',
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
40, 4 (1997).

43
. Pomeranz,
Great Divergence
, p. 85.

44
. Ibid., p. 138.

45
. For the Ottoman economy, B. McGowan, ‘The Age of the Ayans, 1699–1812', in H. Inalcik with D. Quataert (eds.),
An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1914
(Cambridge, 1994), pp. 703,724,727.

46
. W. Floor,
The Economy of Safavid Persia
(Wiesbaden, 2000), pp. 161,331.

47
. J. E. Inikori,
Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England: A Study in International Trade and Economic Development
(Cambridge, 2002), p. 443. Indian cottons ‘completely dominated' the West African market in the early eighteenth century.

48
. C. A. Bayly,
Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars
:
North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion 1770–1870
(Cambridge, 1983), p. 194.

49
. Pomeranz,
Great Divergence
for the analysis that follows.

50
. Ibid., pp. 290,325.

51
. Crafts,
British Economic Growth
, p. 138. Strictly,2.7.

52
. Harley, ‘Cotton Textile Prices', pp. 50 ff.

53
. M. W. Flinn,
The History of the British Coal Industry
, vol. 2:
1700–1830: The Industrial Revolution
(Oxford, 1984), p. 114.

54
. From 68,000tons to 240,000. T. S. Ashton,
Iron and Steel in the Industrial Revolution
(Manchester, 1924), p. 99.

55
. See G. N. von Tunzelman,
Steam Power and British Industrialization to 1860
(Oxford, 1978), pp. 46,224,295.

56
. D. A. Farnie,
The English Cotton Industry and the World Market 1815–1896
(Oxford, 1979), pp. 96–7.

57
. J. A. Mann,
The Cotton Trade of Great Britain
(1860; repr. edn, London, 1968), table 25. After 1840, India took first place.

58
. P. Hudson,
The Industrial Revolution
(London, 1992), p. 183.

59
. R. Davis, ‘English Foreign Trade, 1700–1774',
Economic History Review
, New Series,15, 2 (1962), pp. 285–303.

60
. Hudson,
Industrial Revolution
, 197–8.

61
. P. Mantoux,
The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century
(rev. edn, London, 1961), p. 199.

62
. Ibid., p. 203.

63
. G. Unwin,
Samuel Oldknowand the Arkwrights: The Industrial Revolution in Stockport and Marple
(Manchester, 1924), p. 44.

64
. Ibid., p. 62.

65
. The Company was accused of selling Indian goods cheaply to meet its costs at home. A. Redford,
Manchester Merchants and Foreign Trade 1794–1858
(London, 1934), pp. 122–3.

66
. Unwin,
Samuel Oldknow
, p. 98.

67
. Farnie,
English Cotton Industry
, p. 96.

68
. A. Feuerwerker,
State and Society in Eighteenth Century China
(Ann Arbor, 1976), p. 111.

69
. J. Spence,
In Search of Modern China
(London, 1990), pp. 112–14.

70
. M. L. Cohen, ‘Souls and Salvation', in J. L. Watson and E. Rawski (eds.),
Death Ritual in Late Imperial China
(Berkeley, 1988), pp. 200–201.

71
. P. Kuhn,
Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768
(Cambridge, Mass., 1990), pp. 43–4.

72
. C. A. Ronan (ed.),
The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: An Abridgement of Joseph Needham's Original Text
(Cambridge, 1978), vol. 1, p. 305.

73
. R. J. Smith, ‘Mapping China's World: Cultural Cartography in Late Imperial Times', in Wen-hsin Yeh (ed.),
Landscape, Culture and Power in Chinese Society
(Berkeley, 1998), p. 75.

74
. See J. Spence,
Treason by the Book
(London, 2001).

75
. E. Rawski, ‘The Qing Formation and the Early Modern Period', in L. Struve (ed.),
The Qing Formation in World Historical Time
(Cambridge, Mass., 2004), p. 234.

76
. Perdue,
China Marches West
, p. 456.

77
. Smith, ‘Mapping China's World', pp. 85 ff.

78
. Quoted in A. Singer,
The Lion and the Dragon
(London, 1992), p. 99.

79
. An anxiety felt as far away as Mosul. A. Hourani,
Islam in European Thought
(Cambridge, 1991), p. 138.

80
. B. Lewis,
The Muslim Discovery of Europe
(London, 1982), pp. 81–3.

81
. Ibid., p. 157.

82
. G. Goodwin,
Islamic Architecture: Ottoman Turkey
(London, 1977), pp. 21,161–78.

83
. For his career and ideas, Gulfishan Khan,
Indian Muslim Perceptions of the West in the Eighteenth Century
(Oxford, 1998), pp. 100 ff.

84
. Thus many ‘Greek' Christians in Anatolia used Turkish written in Greek script. See B. Lewis,
Multiple Identities in the Modern Middle East
(London, 1998), p. 8.

85
. H. Algar,
Religion and State in Iran 1785–1906
(Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969), ch. 1.

86
. Ibid., p. 78.

87
. R. M. Eaton,
The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier 1204–1760
(London, 1993), p. 282; M. Laffan,
Islamic Nationhood and Colonial Indonesia
(London, 2003), pp. 20,23–4.

88
. The role of the Sufis is discussed in H. A. R. Gibb and H. Bowen,
Islamic Society and the West: A Study of the Impact of Western Civilisation on Moslem Culture in the Near East
, vol. 1:
Islamic Society in the Eighteenth Century
, pt 2 (London, 1957), pp. 187–97, and in Hourani,
Islam in European Thought
, pp. 156–63. The Ottoman provincial boss Ali Pasha carefully patronized the Bektashi dervishes to strengthen his power. See F. W. Hasluck,
Christianity and Islam under the Sultans
(2 vols., Oxford, 1929), vol. 2, p. 537.

89
. Khan,
Indian Muslim Perceptions
, p. 375.

90
. See Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti,
Chronicle of the First Seven Months of the French Occupation of Egypt
, ed. and trans. S. Moreh (Leiden, 1975); S. Moreh, ‘Napoleon and the French Impact on Egyptian Society in the Eyes of al-Jabarti', in I. Bierman (ed.),
Napoleon in Egypt
(Reading, 2003).

91
. See J. S. Trimingham,
A History of Islam in West Africa
(Oxford, 1962), ch. 5; G. Robinson,
Muslim Societies in African History
(Cambridge, 2004), ch. 10.

92
. J. Israel,
The Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750
(Oxford, 2001), p. 10. The main burden of this study is the radical intellectual influence exercised by the materialist philosophy of Spinoza.

93
. N. Hampson,
The Enlightenment
(London, 1968), p. 131.

94
. For Locke's ideas, M. Cranston,
John Locke
(London, 1957), ch. 20; Hampson,
Enlightenment
, pp. 38–9.

95
. J. Tully,
An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts
(Cambridge, 1993), pp. 200–201.

96
. Most recently in Israel,
Radical Enlightenment
.

97
. J. Locke,
Two Treatises on Civil Government
(1690), ed. J. W. Gough (Oxford, 1946), sect.49.

98
. For a recent study, see A. Pagden,
European Encounters with the New World
(London, 1993).

99
. For Hume, N. Phillipson,
Hume
(London, 1989), pp. 32–4.

100
. See H. Reiss (ed.),
Kant's Political Writings
(Cambridge, 1970), p. 106.

101
. J. W. Burrow,
Evolution and Society
(Cambridge, 1970), p. 39.

102
. Ibid., p. 47.

103
. E. Stokes,
The English Utilitarians and India
(Oxford, 1959), p. 53.

104
. Quoted in Spence,
In Search of Modern China
, p. 123.

105
. S. Drescher,
Capitalism and Anti-Slavery: British Mobilization in Comparative Perspective
(London, 1986).

106
. U. Heyd, ‘The Ottoman ‘Ulema and Westernization in the Time of Selim
III and Mahmud II', in A. Hourani, P. S. Khoury and M. C. Wilson (eds.),
The Modern Middle East
(London, 1993), pp. 29–59.

107
. R. Owen,
The Middle East in the World Economy 1800–1914
(London, 1981), pp. 65–72.

108
. Ewald,
Soldiers, Traders and Slaves
, pp. 152–65.

109
. For a recent analysis of Mehemet Ali's state, K. Fahmy,
All the Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, his Army and the Making of Modern Egypt
(Cairo, 2002).

110
. J. R. Perry,
Karim Khan Zand
(Chicago, 1979).

111
. An entertaining description of Tehran's dealings with the Bakhtiari of south-western Iran in the 1840s is in H. Layard,
Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Babylonia
(2 vols., London, 1887), vol. 2, chs.11–16.

112
. Algar,
Religion and State
, pp. 45–7.

113
. V. Lieberman, ‘Reinterpreting Burmese History',
Comparative Studies in Society and History
29, 1 (1987), p. 179; Thant Myint-U,
The Making of Modern Burma
(Cambridge, 2001), chs.1,2.

114
. For this pattern, V. Lieberman, ‘Local Integration and Eurasian Analogies: Structuring Southeast Asian History,
c
.1350–
c
.1830',
Modern Asian Studies
27, 3 (1993), pp. 475–572; and V. Lieberman,
Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context c.800–1830
, vol. 1:
Integration on the Mainland
(Cambridge, 2003), chs.2,3,4.

115
. For the rise of Zanzibar, M. V. Jackson Haight,
The European Powers and Southeast Africa
(rev. edn, London, 1967), pp. 99–141.

116
. Lord Auckland's dispatch, 28 Feb. 1842, in Kelly,
Britain and the Persian Gulf
, p. 449.

117
. For this account, see C. Totman,
Early Modern Japan
(London, 1993), chs.15–21, and M. Jansen,
The Making of Modern Japan
(Cambridge, Mass., 2000), chs.8,9.

1
. T. R. Malthus,
Principles of Political Economy
(1820), variorum edn, ed. J. Pullen (Cambridge, 1989), p. 234.

2
. See R. E. Cameron,
France and the Economic Development of Europe 1800–1914
(Princeton, 1961).

3
. For this argument, the centrepiece of his account, P. W. Schroeder,
The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848
(Oxford, 1994).

4
. See P. E. Moseley,
Russian Diplomacy and the Opening of the Eastern Question in 1838–1839
(Cambridge, Mass., 1934); B. H. Sumner,
Russia and the Balkans, 1870–1880
(Oxford, 1937); R. W. Seton-Watson,
Disraeli, Gladstone and the Eastern Question
(London, 1935), esp. pp. 194–5.

5
. See E. D. Steele,
Palmerston and Liberalism 1855–1865
(Cambridge, 1991) for the domestic constraints on Palmerston's diplomacy.

6
. See C. J. Bartlett,
Great Britain and Seapower 1815–1853
(Oxford, 1963); G. S. Graham,
The Politics of Naval Supremacy
(Cambridge, 1965); P. Kennedy,
The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery
(London, 1976), ch. 6.

7
. The exception being the North's four year blockade of the South during the American Civil War.

8
. The protracted debate over Napoleon's reputation and legacy is the subject of the brilliant study by P. Geyl,
Napoleon: For and Against
(London, 1949).

9
. The ideas of Constant (1767–1830) can be followed in his essays
De l'esprit de conquîte et de l'usurpation
(1814),
Principes de politique
(1815), and
Mélanges de littérature et de politique
(1829) in Benjamin Constant,
Ecrits politiques
, ed. M. Gauchet (Paris, 1997).

10
. See A. S. Kahan,
Aristocratic Liberalism
(London, 1992) for a study of Tocqueville, J. S. Mill and the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt.

11
. For a study of Burckhardt, L. Gossman,
Basel in the Age of Burckhardt
(Chicago, 2000), chs.5,10,11.

12
. O. Figes,
Natasha's Dance: A Cultural History of Russia
(London, 2002), p. 76.

13
. Ibid., ch. 2.

14
. H. Seton-Watson,
The Russian Empire 1801–1917
(Oxford, 1967), p. 355.

15
. B. Eklof, J. Bushnell and L. Zakharova (eds.),
Russia's Great Reforms 1855–1881
(Bloomington, Ind., 1994), pp. 214,233.

16
. Ibid., p. 249.

17
. G. Hosking,
Russia: People and Empire 1552–1917
(London, 1997), p. 333.