After Tamerlane (81 page)

18
. For Kliuchevskii, N. V. Riasonovsky,
The Image of Peter the Great in Russian History and Thought
(Oxford, 1985).

19
. E. G. Wakefield,
A Letter from Sydney
(1829; Everyman edn, London, 1929), p. 47.

20
. For the increasingly unfavourable view of the United States in France after
c
.1830, R. Remond,
Les Etats-Unis devant l'opinion française 1815–1852
(Paris, 1962), pp. 675,731,740,863.

21
. See D. Potter,
The Impending Struggle
(New York, 1976), p. 244;D.W. Howe,
The Political Culture of the American Whigs
(Chicago, 1974). Andrew Jackson was president in 1828–36.

22
. A. J. H. Latham and L. Neal, ‘The International Market in Rice and Wheat, 1868–1914',
Economic History Review
, New Series,36, 2 (1983), pp. 260–75.

23
. C. Jones,
International Business in the Nineteenth Century
(Brighton, 1987);
G. Jones,
Merchants to Multinationals: British Trading Companies in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries
(Oxford, 2000); D. R. SarDesai,
British Trade and Expansion in Southeast Asia, 1830–1914
(New Delhi, 1977).

24
. A. G. Kenwood and A. L. Lougheed,
The Growth of the International Economy 1820–1980
(London, 1983), pp. 90–91. For economic integration in the Atlantic – a sphere that they extend as far as Australia – K. H. O'Rourke and J. G. Williamson,
Globalization and History: The Evolution of a Nineteenth-Century Atlantic Economy
(Cambridge, Mass., 1999).

25
. Kenwood and Lougheed,
International Economy
, p. 93.

26
. W. Schlote,
British Overseas Trade from 1700 to the 1930s
(Oxford, 1952), pp. 156–8.

27
. B. R. Mitchell,
Abstract of British Historical Statistics
(Cambridge, 1962), p. 317.

28
. P. Bairoch,
Victoires et déboires: Histoire économique et sociale du monde du xvi siècle á nos jours
(3 vols., Paris, 1997), vol. 2, p. 34.

29
. Ibid., p. 18.

30
. B. H. Sumner,
A Survey of Russian History
(London, 1944), pp. 356–7.

31
. Bairoch,
Victoires et déboires
, vol. 1, p. 467.

32
. S. L. Engerman and R. E. Gallman (eds.),
The Cambridge Economic History of the United States
, vol. 2:
The Long Nineteenth Century
(Cambridge, 2000), p. 713.

33
. Mitchell,
Abstract
, pp. 315,318. Northern = Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark. Western = France, Belgium, Netherlands.

34
. See Cameron,
France and the Economic Development of Europe
.

35
. Engerman and Gallman (eds.),
Economic History
, vol. 2, p. 696; L.E. Davis and R. J. Cull,
International Capital Markets and American Economic Growth 1820–1914
(Cambridge, 1994), p. 111. The figure for Australia after 1860 was nearer to 50 per cent, with half of capital needs being supplied from Britain. See N. J. Butlin,
Australian Economic Development 1861–1900
(Cambridge, 1964), pp. 28–30.

36
. R. G. Albion,
The Rise of NewYork Port 1815–1860
(New York, 1939); .S. Beckert,
The Monied Metropolis: NewYork City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie
(Cambridge, 2001).

37
. Bairoch,
Victoires et déboires
, vol. 1, p. 410.

38
. Engerman and Gallman,
Economic History
, vol. 2, p. 50; P. Mathias,
The First Industrial Nation
(London, 1969), p. 243.

39
. S. Bruchey,
Enterprise: The Dynamic Economy of a Free People
(London, 1990), p. 237.

40
. Mitchell,
Abstract
, p. 318.

41
. Engerman and Gallman,
Economic History
, vol. 2, p. 700.

42
. See S. Ambrose,
Undaunted Courage
(New York, 1996).

43
. John Langdon, ‘Three Voyages to the West Coast of Africa 1881–1884', ed. M. Lynn, in B. Wood and M. Lynn (eds.),
Travel, Trade and Power in the Atlantic 1765–1884
(Cambridge, 2002).

44
. See S. Bard,
Traders of Hong Kong: Some Foreign Merchant Houses 1841–1899
(Hong Kong, 1993).

45
. B. S. A. Yeoh,
Contesting Space–Power Relations and the Urban Built-Environment in Colonial Singapore
(Kuala Lumpur, 1996), p. 35.

46
. J. Conrad,
The End of the Tether
(London, 1902), p. 168.

47
. J. Forbes Munro,
Maritime Enterprise and Empire: Sir William Mackinnon and his Business Network
(Woodbridge, 2003), chs.5,6,7,8.

48
. R. Giffen, ‘The Statistical Century', in his
Economic Inquiries and Studies
(2 vols., London, 1904), vol. 2, pp. 270,273.

49
. R. C. Wade,
The Urban Frontier: Pioneer Life in Early Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Lexington, Louisville and St Louis
(Chicago, 1964), p. 341.

50
. For a discussion of the contrast between an ‘enterprise' economy and one in which the state played a larger role (the cases being the USA and Canada), W. T. Easterbrook,
North American Patterns of Growth and Development: The Continental Context
(Toronto, 1990).

51
. G. Blainey,
The Tyranny of Distance
(Melbourne, 1966).

52
. For a brilliant discussion of this, G. Raby,
Making Rural Australia
(Oxford, 1996).

53
. G. Brechin,
Imperial San Francisco: Urban Power, Earthly Ruin
(Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1999).

54
. W. Issel and R. W. Cherny,
San Francisco 1865–1932
(London, 1986), ch. 2.

55
. Elliott West,
The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers and the Rush to Colorado
(Lawrence, Kan., 1998).

56
. For the significance of the revolver in allowing the white American conquest of the Plains Indians, Walter Prescott Webb,
The Great Plains
(New York, 1936), pp. 167–79: ‘It enabled the white man to fight the Plains Indians on horseback.'

57
. D. Robinson,
Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauretania, 1880–1920
(Athens, O., and Oxford, 2000), p. 59.

58
.
The Heart of Darkness
was published in 1902. This reference comes from the Everyman edition (London, 1974), p. 62.

59
. R. Ileto, ‘Religion and Anti-Colonial Movements', in N. Tarling (ed.),
The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
, vol. 3:
From c.1800 to the 1930s
(pbk edn, Cambridge, 1999), p. 216.

60
. See C. H. Ambler,
Kenyan Communities in the Age of Imperialism
(New Haven, 1988) for a study of the Embu.

61
. Winwood Reade,
The Martyrdom of Man
(London, 1872), p. 242. Reade's purpose, in what became by the 1920s a very widely read (as well as extraordinarily original) book, was to insist that Africa did not lie apart from world history, but had played a central role in it.

62
. M. Osborne,
The River Road to China
(London, 1975), p. 186.

63
. L. Subramanian, ‘Banias and the British: The Role of Indigenous Credit in… Imperial Expansion in Western India',
Modern Asian Studies
21 (1987), pp. 473–510.

64
. Twenty years later, the armies of British India's three ‘presidencies', Bengal (covering much of North India), Bombay and Madras, amounted to more than 270,000 men. M. K. Pasha,
Recruitment and Underdevelopment in the Punjab
(Karachi, 1998), p. 32.

65
. The best short study of the age of Company rule is D. A. Washbrook, ‘India, 1818–1860: The Two Faces of Colonialism', in A. Porter (ed.),
The Oxford History of the British Empire
, vol. 3:
The Nineteenth Century
(Oxford, 1999), pp. 395–421. See also his ‘Economic Depression and the Making of ‘‘Traditional'' Society in Colonial India 1820–1855',
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
, 6th Series, 3 (1993), pp. 237–63.

66
. Thornton's
Gazetteer of India 1857
(London, 1857), pp. 136,175.

67
. S. David,
The Indian Mutiny
(London, 2002), p. 397.

68
. Ibid., p. 346.

69
. For aspects of the Mutiny and its causes, R. C. Majumdar,
The Sepoy Mutiny and the Revolt of 1857
(Calcutta, 1968); C. A. Bayly,
Empire and Information
(Cambridge, 1996), ch. 9; E. T. Stokes,
The Peasant and the Raj
(Cambridge, 1978); C. A. Bayly, ‘Two Colonial Revolts: The Java War and the Indian ‘‘Mutiny'' of 1857–59', in C. A. Bayly and D. A. Kolff (eds.),
Two Colonial Empires
(Dordrecht, 1986); F. Robinson, ‘The Muslims of Upper India and the Shock of the Mutiny', in his
Islam and Muslim History in South Asia
(New Delhi, 2000), pp. 138–55.

70
. Stokes,
Peasant
, p. 150, footnote.

71
. See E. Stokes,
The English Utilitarians and India
(Oxford, 1959).

72
. ‘T'ung-chih' was the reign-name of the Chinese emperor of 1862–75; ‘Meiji' that of the Japanese emperor of 1868–1912.

73
. The classic account remains M. Greenberg,
British Trade and the Opening of China
(Cambridge, 1951).

74
. See J. K. Fairbank,
Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast
(Cambridge, Mass., 1953).

75
. Feng's essays, written in 1860–61, were presented to his patron, Tseng Kuo-fan, a key figure in the T'ung-chih restoration. See S. Teng and J. K. Fairbank (eds.),
China's Response to the West
(Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 50–53.

76
. See J. Spence,
God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xinquan
(New York, 1996) for the best recent history.

77
. Between 1853 and 1863 the Nien controlled an area larger than the UK. See S. Y. Teng,
The Nien Army and their Guerilla Warfare
(The Hague, 1961), pp. 219 ff.

78
. For a recent survey, J. Lee, ‘Trade and Economy in Pre-Industrial East Asia
c
.1500–
c
.1800: East Asia in the Age of Global Integration',
Journal of Asian Studies
58, 1 (1999), pp. 2–26.

79
. Opium consumption increased sevenfold between the 1810s and 1850s. See.Y. P. Hao,
The Commercial Revolution in Nineteenth-Century China: The Rise of Sino-Western Mercantile Capitalism
(Berkeley and London, 1986), p. 69.

80
. P. Richardson,
Economic Change in China c.1800–1950
(London, 1999), p. 21.

81
. See Mary C. Wright,
The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-chih Restoration 1862–1874
(Stanford, 1957).

82
. For this incident, H. B. Morse and H. F. MacNair,
Far Eastern International Relations
(2nd edn, Cambridge, Mass., 1931), p. 352.

83
. Wright,
Last Stand
, p. 195.

84
. Ibid., pp. 52,55; E. J. Rhoads,
Manchus and Han
(Seattle, 2000) argues for the persistence of ethnic and cultural differences until after 1900.

85
. Y. P. Hao,
The Comprador in Nineteenth-Century China
(Cambridge, Mass., 1970) is the standard account.

86
. Hao,
Commercial Revolution
, p. 340; for the merchants' difficulties, F. E. Hyde,
Far Eastern Trade 1860–1914
(London, 1973), ch. 5.

87
. Hao,
Commercial Revolution
, pp. 338–9.

88
. For an excellent description, Albert M. Craig,
Choshu in the Meiji Restoration
(Cambridge, Mass., 1961), pp. 17 ff.

89
. See C. Totman,
Early Modern Japan
(London, 1993), pp. 242–5.

90
. Craig,
Choshu
, pp. 26,53–70; C. L. Yates,
Saigo Takamori
(London, 1995), p. 19.

91
. For these events, Craig,
Choshu
, chs.8,9.

92
. For the powers' declaration of neutrality, E. Satow,
A Diplomat in Japan
(London, 1921), p. 303; Morse and MacNair,
Far Eastern International Relations
, p. 325.

93
. The best introduction to this process remains E. H. Norman,
Japan's Emergence as a Modern State
(New York, 1940), a brilliant study now curiously ignored in the specialist literature whose arguments and ideas it largely anticipates.

94
.
The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi
(Tokyo, 1981), p. 227.

95
. See Roger F. Hackett,
Yamagata Aristomo in the Rise of Modern Japan
(Cambridge, Mass., 1971).

96
. For this process, see T. Fujitani,
Splendid Monarchy: Power and Pageantry in Modern Japan
(London, 1998).

97
. G. C. Allen and A. Donnithorne,
Western Enterprise in Far Eastern Economic Development: China and Japan
(London, 1954), p. 202.

98
. C. Howe,
The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy
(London, 1996), p. 250.

99
. E. S. Crawcour, ‘Economic Change in the Nineteenth Century', in M. B. Jansen (ed.),
The Cambridge History of Japan
, vol. 5:
The Nineteenth Century
(Cambridge, 1989), p. 616.

100
. This may in part have been induced by financial need. See T. Suzuki-Morris,
A History of Japanese Economic Thought
(London, 1989), p. 57.