After Tamerlane (84 page)

13
. A. Hourani,
Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age 1798–1939
(London, 1962; repr. Cambridge, 1983), p. 276.

14
. See M. Llewellyn Smith,
Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor 1919–1922
(London, 1973).

15
. For an account of the crisis, D. Walder,
The Chanak Affair
(London, 1969).

16
. The human consequences of the war and the treaty are discussed in J. McCarthy,
Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims 1821–1922
(Princeton, 1995), ch. 7.

17
. A British withdrawal from Iraq altogether was actively debated in the cabinet in 1923. The prime minister of the day, Andrew Bonar Law, was in favour of going.

18
. For Atatü rk's state-building, B. Lewis,
The Emergence of Modern Turkey
(London, 1961); A. Mango,
Atatü rk
(London, 1999); M. E. Meeker,
A Nation of Empire: The Ottoman Legacy of Turkish Modernity
(Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 2002). For Reza Shah's reconstruction of Iran, E. Abrahamian,
Iran between Two Revolutions
(Princeton, 1982), pp. 118–65. See A. T. Wilson,
Persia
(London, 1932), p. 307, for the huge increase in the value of oil exports. M. E. Yapp,
The Near East since the First World War
(London, 1991) is an excellent general account.

19
. For the intensification of Indian Muslim resentment, F. C. R. Robinson,
Separatism among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the United Provinces Muslims, 1860–1923
(Cambridge, 1974); Jacob M. Landau,
The Politics of Pan-Islam: Ideology and Organization
(Oxford, 1990), pp. 182–215;M. Hasan,
Mahomed Ali: Ideology and Politics
(Delhi, 1981). Mahomed Ali was interned for sedition by the British until 1919.

20
. The best account of Amritsar is now N. Collet,
The Butcher of Amritsar
(London, 2006) – despite its colourful title, a subtle and scholarly study.

21
. For Gandhi's early political career, and the movement of 1919, J. M. Brown,
Gandhi's Rise to Power
(Cambridge, 1972); R. Kumar (ed.),
Essays in Gandhian Politics
(Oxford, 1971).

22
. D. A. Low, ‘The Government of India and the First Non-Cooperation Campaign, 1920–22', in Kumar (ed.),
Gandhian Politics
; D. Page,
Prelude to Partition: The Indian Muslims and the Imperial System of Control 1920–1932
(Delhi, 1982).

23
. These nervous manoeuvrings can be followed in B. R. Tomlinson,
The Indian National Congress and the Raj
(London, 1976).

24
. See Zhang Yongjin,
China in the International System, 1918–1920: The Middle Kingdom at the Periphery
(London, 1991).

25
. A. J. Nathan,
Peking Politics 1918–1923
(London, 1976).

26
. A. Waldron, ‘The Warlord: Twentieth Century Chinese Understandings of Violence, Militarism and Imperialism',
American Historical Review
96, 4 (1991), pp. 1073–1100; for an overview, Hsi-Sheng Ch'i,
Warlord Politics
in China
(Stanford, 1976); for a provincial case study, Angus W. McDonald,
The Urban Origins of Rural Revolution: Elites and the Masses in Hunan Province, China, 1911–1927
(Berkeley, Los Angeles and London, 1978).

27
. H. B. Morse and H. F. MacNair,
Far Eastern International Relations
(2nd edn, Cambridge, Mass., 1931), p. 581.

28
. Ibid., pp. 581–3.

29
. See Jerome B. Grieder,
Intellectuals and the State in Modern China
(New York, 1981), pp. 214–26.

30
. Yongjin,
China in the International System
, p. 184.

31
. For a classic expression of this view, see memo by Sir B. Alston (British minister in Peking), 1 Aug. 1920, in R. Butler, J. P. T. Bury and M. Lambert (eds.),
Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919–1939
, 1st Series, vol. 14 (London, 1966), pp. 81–6.

32
. Y. T. Matsusaka,
The Making of Japanese Manchuria 1904–1932
(Cambridge, Mass., 2001), pp. 242 ff.

33
. C. Tsuzuki,
The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan 1825–1995
(Oxford, 2000), pp. 210,217.

34
. Matsusaka,
Japanese Manchuria
, p. 206.

35
. Tsuzuki,
Pursuit of Power
, pp. 206,236–7.

36
. See C. Howe,
The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy
(London, 1996), p. 381, for the effects of Chinese boycotts on Japan's textile exports.

37
. J. O. P. Bland,
China: The Pity of It
(London, 1931), p. 40.

38
. For Sun's career, H. Z. Schiffrin,
Sun Yat-sen: Reluctant Revolutionary
(Boston, 1980).

39
. For the dangerous lives of these 400‘
sovietniki
', see D. N. Jacobs,
Borodin: Stalin's Man in China
(Cambridge, Mass., 1981).

40
. For an account of this that stresses the limited influence of the Communist Party, Ming K. Chan, ‘The Realpolitik and Legacy of Labour Activism and Popular Mobilisation in 1920s Greater Canton', in M. Leutner, R. Felber, M. L. Titarenko and A. M. Grigoriev (eds.),
The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster
(London, 2002), pp. 187–221.

41
. For an outstanding study of this process, Hans van der Ven,
War and Nationalism in China 1925–1945
(London, 2003), ch. 2.

42
. Ch'i,
Warlord Politics
, pp. 223–4; Waldron, ‘The Warlord', pp. 1075 ff.

43
. For British policy towards the challenge posed by Chinese nationalism, E. K. S. Fung,
The Diplomacy of Imperial Retreat
(Hong Kong, 1991); Chan Lan Kit-Ching,
China, Britain and Hong Kong 1895–1945
(Hong Kong, 1991). Not for the last time, there was friction between the views of the colonial governor in Hong Kong and his diplomatic colleagues in Peking and London.

44
. Van der Ven,
War and Nationalism
, ch. 2.

45
. R. Overy,
The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia
(London, 2004), p. 445.

46
. Jeremy Smith,
The Bolsheviks and the National Question 1917–1923
(London, 1999), p. 98.

47
. See R. Ullman,
The Anglo-Soviet Accord
(London, 1972), chs.10,11.

48
. The classic account of this process is R. Pipes,
The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism 1917–1923
(rev. edn, Cambridge, Mass., 1964).

49
. For a description of this phase of his career, see R. Service,
Stalin
(London, 2004).

50
. Stalin to Lenin, 22 Sept. 1922, in J. Smith,
Bolsheviks and the National Question
, p. 183.

51
. Ibid., pp. 93–4.

52
. Stalin to Lenin, 22 Sept. 1922.

53
. See F. P. Walters,
The History of the League of Nations
(London, 1952) for a general account of the League.

54
. B. Eichengreen, ‘Twentieth-Century US Foreign Financial Relations', in S. L. Engerman and R. E. Gallman (eds.),
The Cambridge Economic History of the United States
, vol. 3:
The Twentieth Century
(Cambridge, 2000), pp. 476–7.

55
. See D. F. Fleming,
The United States and the League of Nations 1918–1920
(New York, 1932), pp. 122–43.

56
. For the views of the highly influential political geographer Isaiah Bowman, N. Smith,
American Empire: Roosevelt's Geographer and the Prelude to Globalization
(London, 2003), pp. 184–8.

57
. See A. Iriye,
The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations
, vol. 3:
The Globalising of America
(Cambridge, 1995).

58
. See C. Thorne,
The Limits of Power: The West, the League and the Far Eastern Crisis of 1931–1933
(London, 1972).

59
. See B. McKercher,
Transition of Power: Britain's Loss of Global Preeminence to the United States 1930–1945
(Cambridge, 1999).

60
. Overy,
Dictators
, p. 398.

61
. Service,
Stalin
, p. 325.

62
. Overy,
Dictators
, p. 561.

63
. J. Haslam,
The Soviet Union and the Threat from the East
(London, 1992), p. 28: the USSR had 200,000 troops in eastern Siberia by 1933.

64
. J. Spence,
In Search of Modern China
(London, 1990), p. 382.

65
. American policy can be followed in S. K. Hornbeck,
The Diplomacy of Frustration: The Manchurian Crisis of 1931–1933 as Revealed in the Papers of Stanley K. Hornbeck
(Stanford, 1981).

66
. Van der Ven,
War and Nationalism
, p. 131.

67
. A. Best,
British Intelligence and the Japanese Challenge in Asia 1914–1941
(Basingstoke, 2002), p. 89.

68
. See Matsusaka,
Japanese Manchuria
, pp. 281–8.

69
. For a recent analysis, ibid., pp. 378–9.

70
. See Van der Ven,
War and Nationalism
, pp. 188 ff.

71
. See Tim Rooth,
British Protectionism and the International Economy: Overseas Commercial Policy in the 1930s
(Cambridge, 2002).

72
. For the German
Grossraumwirtschaft
in Eastern Europe after 1934, A. Basch,
The Danube Basin and the German Economic Sphere
(London, 1944), chs.11,16; E. A. Radice, ‘The German Economic Programme in Eastern Europe', in M. Kaiser (ed.),
The Economic History of Eastern Europe 1919–1975
(Oxford, 1986), vol. 2, pp. 300–301.

73
. Cotton and silk goods made up over half of Japan's exports. Howe,
Trade Supremacy
, p. 121.

74
. Ibid., pp. 215–18; I. Inkster,
Japanese Industrialisation: Historical and Cultural Perspectives
(London, 2001), pp. 97–116.

75
. For a general study, H. James,
The End of Globalisation
(London, 2001).

76
. See L. Viola,
Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance
(New York, 1996).

77
. See J. Z. Muller,
The Other God that Failed
(Princeton, 1987); H. Lehmann and J. J. Sheehan (eds.),
An Interrupted Past: German-Speaking Refugee Historians in the United States after 1933
(Cambridge, 1991) for the intellectual career of the sociologist Hans Freyer; H. Lehmann and J. van H. Melton,
Paths of Continuity: Central European Historiography from the 1930 stothe 1950s
(Cambridge, 1994) for Nazi sympathies among historians; M. Malia,
Russia under Western Eyes
(Cambridge, Mass., 1999), pp. 325 ff.

78
. See H. Harootunian,
Overcome by Modernity: History, Culture and Community in Inter-war Japan
(Princeton, 2000) for a fascinating study of these anxieties.

79
. These ideas are the subject of John Lonsdale's essay ‘The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought', in B. Berman and J. Lonsdale,
Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa
, book2:
Ethnicity and Violence
(London, 1992).

80
. J. Kenyatta,
Facing Mount Kenya
(London, 1938), p. 318.

81
. See for example, M. J. Bonn,
The Crumbling of Empire: The Disintegration of World Economy
(London, 1938).

82
. For the mood of the ‘Shanghailanders', R. Bickers,
Empire Made Me: An Englishman Adrift in Shanghai
(London, 2003), chs. 7, 9.

83
. See his letter to Gandhi, 28 Apr. 1938, in J. Nehru,
A Bunch of Old Letters
(Bombay, 1958), pp. 276–7.

84
. An Anglo-Egyptian treaty on these lines was eventually signed in 1936.

85
. The tortuous movements of British policy and Indian politics can be followed in Page,
Prelude to Partition
and Tomlinson,
The Indian National Congress and the Raj
.

86
. N. Tarling (ed.),
The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia
, vol. 3:
From c.1800 to the 1930s
(pbk edn, Cambridge, 1999), pp. 269–70,276. For ‘political' policing in India, D. Arnold,
Police Power and Colonial Rule: Madras 1859–1947
(Delhi, 1986), ch. 6.

87
. A. D. Roberts, ‘The Imperial Mind', in A. D. Roberts (ed.),
The Cambridge History of Africa
, vol. 7:
From 1905 to 1940
(Cambridge, 1986), pp. 24–76.

88
. For this approach at work in inter-war Nigeria, see the memorandum of September 1939 by its governor, Sir Bernard Bourdillon, in A. F. Madden and J. Darwin (eds.),
The Dependent Empire 1900–1948
, vol. 7:
Colonies, Protectorates and Mandates: Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth
(Westport, Conn., 1994), pp. 705–9.

89
. L. A. Sherwani,
Speeches, Writings and Statements of Iqbal
(Lahore, 1944), pp. 3–26.

90
. Published in 1923. Savarkar became president of the Hindu Mahasabha in 1937.

91
. S. Bayly,
Caste, Society and Politics in India
(Cambridge, 1999), p. 262, n.65.

92
. This idea was first set out in a famous essay by J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade',
Economic History Review
, New Series,6, 1 (1953), pp. 1–15.

93
. This point is made clear in
Mein Kampf
.