After Tamerlane (85 page)

94
. This judgement was made in the authoritative journal of American business. See
Fortune
, July 1940, p. 136.

95
. Quoted in G. L. Weinberg,
A World at War: A Global History of World War Two
(Cambridge, 1994), p. 118.

96
. E. Staley, ‘The Myth of the Continents', published in
Foreign Affairs
, Apr. 1941; repr. in H. Weigert and V. Stefansson (eds.),
The Compass of the World
(London, 1943).

97
. See A. Iriye,
China and Japan in the Global Setting
(Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 78–80.

98
. Y. Kibata,
Anglo-Japanese Relations in the 1930s and 1940s
(London, 1982).

99
. A Iriye, ‘The Failure of Military Expansionism', in S. Large (ed.),
Showa Japan: Political, Economic and Social History 1926–1989
, vol. 1:
1926–1941
(London, 1998), pp. 213–15,223,226–7.

100
. I. Cowman,
Dominion or Decline: Anglo-American Naval Relations in the Pacific 1937–1941
(Oxford, 1996), pp. 85,88,93–4.

101
. M. Roseman,
The Villa, the Lake, the Meeting: Wannsee and the Final Solution
(London, 2004), p. 107.

102
. Ibid., p. 101.

1
. The disorientation is brilliantly evoked in Czeslaw Milosz,
The Captive Mind
(1953; pbk edn Harmondsworth, 1980), pp. 26–7.

2
. L. Barnes (Harmondsworth, 1944).

3
. This was the object of W. K. Hancock,
Argument of Empire
, published as a paperback in both Britain and America in 1942. For the wider scene, Suke Wolton,
Lord Hailey, the Colonial Office and the Politics of Race and Empire in the Second World War: The Loss of White Prestige
(London, 2000).

4
. See O. A. Westad,
Cold War and Revolution: Soviet–American Rivalry and the Origins of the Chinese Civil War
(New York, 1993), pp. 177–8.

5
. See D. C. Engerman,
Modernization from the Other Shore
(Cambridge, Mass., 2003), pp. 262–9.

6
. See H. W. van den Doel,
Het Rijk van Insulinde
(Amsterdam, 1996), pp. 284,286.

7
. Quoted in Wm Roger Louis and Ronald Robinson, ‘The Imperialism of Decolonisation',
Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History
22, 3 (1994), p. 468.

8
. For British anxiety at the prospect of ‘Modern China's Asiatic Empire' – the subject of an India Office memorandum – Lanxin Xiang,
Recasting the Imperial Far East: Britain and America in China 1945–1950
(Armonk, NY, 1995), p. 32.

9
. Westad,
Cold War and Revolution
, pp. 173–4.

10
. For the best discussion of these issues, Hans van der Ven,
War and Nationalism in China 1925–1945
(London, 2003), ch. 7.

11
. Under the ‘May4th directive' in 1946, land was to be confiscated from landlords and distributed to the peasants. See
Selected Military Writings of Mao Tse-tung
(Peking, 1963), pp. 322–4.

12
. C. Howe,
The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy
(London, 1996), p. 403.

13
. D. Norman (ed.),
Nehru: The First Sixty Years
(2 vols., London, 1965), vol. 2, p. 452.

14
. Westad,
Cold War and Revolution
, p. 167.

15
. ‘The Vasco da Gama epoch' was the striking phrase of K. M. Pannikar. See his
Asia and Western Dominance
(London, 1953), pp. 13–17.

16
. See R. Foot and J. Brown (eds.),
Hong Kong's Transitions
(London, 1997).

17
. For the full list,
Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 1955
, p. 14181.

18
. For the text of these speeches,
Keesing's Contemporary Archives 1955
, pp. 14181 ff.; G. Kahin,
The Asian–African Conference at Bandung, Indonesia, April 1955
(Ithaca, NY, 1956).

19
. The influential thesis of Chalmers Johnson,
Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power
(Stanford, 1962).

20
. See S. Pepper, ‘The Political Odyssey of an Intellectual Construct: Peasant Nationalism and the Study of China's Revolutionary History – a Review Essay',
Journal of Asian Studies
63, 1 (2004), pp. 105–25.

21
. O. A. Westad,
Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War 1946–1950
(Stanford, 2003), p. 323.

22
. Qiang Zhai,
China and the Vietnam Wars 1950–1975
(Chapel Hill, NC, 2000), pp. 20,43–9.

23
. Ibid., pp. 82–3.

24
. Mao's thinking is examined in J. D. Armstrong,
Revolutionary Diplomacy: Chinese Foreign Policy and the United Front Doctrine
(Berkeley and London, 1977), ch. 3.

25
. John Dower,
Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Aftermath of World War Two
(Harmondsworth, 1999).

26
. Ibid., p. 206.

27
. C. Tsuzuki,
The Pursuit of Power in Modern Japan 1825–1995
(Oxford, 2000), p. 357.

28
. Dower,
Embracing Defeat
, pp. 249,560.

29
. For a recent study, J. M. Brown,
Nehru
(London, 2004).

30
. See J. Rizvi,
Trans-Himalayan Caravans: Merchant Princes and Peasant Traders in Ladakh
(New Delhi, 1999), ch. 1.

31
. The standard account is N. Maxwell,
India's China War
(London, 1970).

32
. D. Kumar (ed.),
The Cambridge Economic History of India
, vol. 2:
c.1757–c.1970
(Cambridge, 1982), pp. 972–3.

33
. Westad,
Decisive Encounters
, p. 320.

34
. The course of British policy can be followed in the documents published in H. Tinker (ed.),
Constitutional Relations between Britain and Burma: The Struggle for Independence 1944–1948
(2 vols., London, 1983–4).

35
. American policy towards Indonesian nationalism can be followed in
Foreign Relations of the United States [FRUS] 1948
, vol. 6:
The Far East and Australasia
(Washington, 1974), especially Acting Secretary of State to US ambassador in Moscow, 30 Dec. 1948, pp. 613ff; and
FRUS 1949
, vol. 7:
The Far East and Australasia
(Washington, 1975), especially Acting Secretary of State, conversation with Dutch ambassador, 11 Jan. 1949 (threatening end of American economic aid), p. 139.

36
. See S. Tonnesson, ‘National Divisions in Indochina's Decolonization', in
P. Duara (ed.),
Decolonization: Perspectives from Nowand Then
(London, 2004), p. 262; E. Miller, ‘Vision, Power and Agency: The Ascent of Ngo Dinh Diem, 1945–54',
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
35, 3 (2004), pp. 437–40.

37
. Note by Dean Acheson, 20 May 1949, in
FRUS 1949
, vol. 7, p. 29.

38
. For analysis of Diem, Miller, ‘Vision, Power and Agency'; Tonnesson, ‘Indochina's Decolonization'; D. Duncanson,
Government and Revolution in Vietnam
(London, 1968), ch. 5.

39
. For Malayan–Indonesian tensions before and after independence, Joseph Chinyong Liow, ‘Tunku Abdul Rahman and Malaya's Relations with Indonesia 1957–1960',
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
36, 1 (2005), pp. 87–109.

40
. For the best account of British policy, W. R. Louis,
The British Empire in the Middle East 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism
(Oxford, 1984).

41
. For this estimate, W. B. Fisher,
The Middle East: A Physical, Social and Regional Geography
(London, 1950), p. 249.

42
. Ghada Hashem Talhani,
Palestine and Egyptian National Identity
(New York, 1992), p. 9.

43
. P. Seale,
The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics 1945–1958
(London, 1966); A. Rathmell,
Secret War in the Middle East: The Covert Struggle for Syria 1949–1961
(London, 1995); P. Seale, ‘Syria', in Y. Sadiqh and A. Shlaim (eds.),
The Cold War and the Middle East
(Oxford, 1997); M. Ma'oz, ‘Attempts to Create a Political Community in Syria', in I. Pappe and M. Ma'oz,
Middle East Politics and Ideas: The History from Within
(London, 1997).

44
. M. J. Cohen,
Palestine and the Great Powers 1945–1948
(Princeton, 1982) is the standard account.

45
. H. Batatu,
The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq
(Princeton, 1978), pp. 470–72,545–66,680.

46
. Talhani,
Palestine
, pp. 48–50.

47
. For a recent discussion, see R. McNamara,
Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East 1952–1967
(London, 2003), ch. 3.

48
. This was the judgement of the British ambassador in Cairo in July 1954. See James Jankowski,
Nasser's Egypt, Arab Nationalism and the United Arab Republic
(Boulder, Colo., 2002), p. 56.

49
. Rathmell,
Secret War
, ch. 4.

50
. The standard account is K. Kyle,
Suez
(London, 1991).

51
. For Eden's political fate, D. Carlton,
Anthony Eden
(London, 1981).

52
. See Rathmell,
Secret War
, pp. 160–62; Abdulaziz A. al-Sudairi,
A Vision of the Middle East: An Intellectual Biography of Albert Hourani
(London,
1999), pp. 98–100; Fouad Ajami, ‘The End of Pan-Arabism',
Foreign Affairs
, winter 1978/9.

53
. For the intensification of America's ‘special relationship' with Israel from the late 1950s, D. Little, ‘The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and Israel 1957–1968',
International Journal of Middle East Studies
25, 4 (1993), pp. 563–85; G. M. Steinberg, ‘Israel and the United States: Can the Special Relationship Survive the New Strategic Environment?',
Middle East Reviewof International Affairs
2, 4 (1998).

54
. See A. Sampson,
The Seven Sisters: The Great Oil Companies and the World They Made
(London, 1975).

55
. The title of the influential study by Fouad Ajami (London, 1981).

56
. For the onset of the crisis, E. Abrahamian,
Iran between Two Revolutions
(Princeton, 1982), ch5. For Anglo-Iranian, J. Bamberg,
The History of the British Petroleum Company
, vol. 2:
The Anglo-Iranian Years 1928–1954
(Cambridge, 1994).

57
. For the American view, see for example Rowntree to McGhee, 20 Dec. 1950, in
FRUS 1950
, vol. 5:
The Near East, South Asia and Africa
(Washington, 1978), p. 634. For British policy, Louis,
The British Empire in the Middle East
, pp. 632–89.

58
. For a recent study of the 1953 coup, M. J. Gasiorowski and M. J. Byrne (eds.),
Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran
(Syracuse, NY, 2004), ‘Conclusion'. For landlord dominance and its impact, Abrahamian,
Iran
, pp. 378–82.

59
. J.R.T. Wood,
TheWelenskyPapers
(Durban, 1982) remains the best account.

60
. The number of white settlers in Portugal's main African territories in Angola and Mozambique increased from 67,000 in 1940 to 300,000 by 1960. See A. J. Telo,
Economia e Imperio no Portugal Contemporanea
(Lisbon, 1994), p. 267.

61
. See the memo by the governor of Nigeria in September 1939, CO583/244/30453, printed in A. F. Madden and J. Darwin (eds.),
The Dependent Empire 1900–1948
, vol. 7:
Colonies, Protectorates and Mandates: Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth
(Westport, Conn., 1994), pp. 705 ff.

62
. For the origins of this view, D. A. Low and J. Lonsdale, ‘Towards the New Order', in D. A. Low and A. Smith (eds.),
History of East Africa
, vol. 3 (Oxford, 1976), pp. 1–63.

63
. For the strategies open to colonial governments, J. Darwin, ‘The Central African Emergency, 1959', in R. F. Holland (ed.),
Emergencies and Disorders in the European Colonial Empires after 1945
(London, 1994).

64
. See J. Lonsdale, ‘The Moral Economy of Mau Mau: Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought', in B. Berman and J. Lonsdale,
Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa
, book2:
Ethnicity and Violence
(London, 1992), pp. 265–504.

65
. For a recent study of the workings of the Kenya emergency, D. Anderson,
Histories of the Hanged
(London, 2005). C. Elkins,
Britain's Gulag
(London, 2005) offers a more vehement account.

66
. The best account remains Crawford Young,
Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence
(Princeton, 1965).

67
. For the circumstances, see Ludo de Witte,
The Assassination of Lumumba
(Eng. trans. London, 2001).

68
. See Colin Legum,
Congo Disaster
(published as a Penguin Special, Harmondsworth, 1961).

69
. The dilemmas confronting post-colonial governments in Africa are brilliantly evoked in two recent studies: P. Chabal and J.-P. Daloz,
Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument
(Oxford, 1999); J.-F. Bayart, S. Ellis and B. Hibou,
The Criminalization of the State in Africa
(Oxford, 1999).

70
. See J. Zasloff, ‘Law and the Shaping of American Foreign Policy: From the Gilded Age to the New Era',
NewYork University LawReview
78, 30 (2003), pp. 101–288. I owe this reference to Andrew Hurrell.