Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (88 page)

89
Quotation: Serbyn, “Lemkin.” See also, generally, Martin,
Affirmative Action Empire
; and Snyder,
Sketches.

90
Quotations: Koestler,
God That Failed
, 68; Weissberg-Cybulski,
Wielka Czystka
, 266; Koestler,
God That Failed
, 77.

91
On the arch, see Kuśnierz,
Ukraina
, 178. On the wealth transfers, see Falk,
Sowjetische Städte
, 288; Davies,
Years
, 158; and Conquest,
Harvest
, 237. On the “sausage makers,” see Kuromiya,
Freedom and Terror
, 172.

92
Quotation: Conquest,
Harvest
, 256. See also, generally, Slezkine,
Jewish Century
; and Fitzpatrick,
Education
.

93
Quotations: Subtelny, “German Diplomatic Reports,” 17; Polish Consul-General, 4 February 1933, CAW I/303/4/1867; Border Defense Corps, 15 November 1933, CAW I/303/4/6906. On the hopes for war, see Snyder,
Sketches
, 110. For letters of Soviet Germans to Germany, see
Hungersnot.
See also Berkhoff, “Great Famine.”

94
A relevant speech from Hitler can be found in
Deutschösterreichische Tageszeitung
, 3 March 1933. On the cardinals, see Dalrymple, “Soviet Famine,” 254. for Innitzer’s interventions, see
Reichspost
, 20 August 1933 and 12 October 1933; and
Die Neue Zeitung
, 14 October 1933.

95
For Duranty, see
New York Times
, 31 March 1933. On Muggeridge, see Taylor, “Blanket of Silence,” 82. For Orwell, see
Orwell and Politics
, 33-34. See also Engerman,
Modernization
, 211. In fairness to the
New York Times
: two anonymous articles of 1 and 11 January 1933 used the concepts of “man-made” hunger and “war with the peasantry.”

96
Papuha,
Zakhidna Ukraïna
, 33, 46, 57.

97
On Soviet counterpropaganda, see Papuha,
Zakhidna Ukraïna
, 56. On Herriot’s weight, see
Time
, 31 October 1932. See also Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 177; and Conquest,
Harvest
, 314.

98
Quotations: Kovalenko,
Holod
, 353; Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 180; see also 175-179. See also Mark,
Hungersnot
, 26-27; Subtelny, “German Diplomatic Reports,” 21; Marochko,
Holodomor
, 256-257, 283;
Time
, 22 January 1934.

99
Marochko,
Holodomor
, 257; Zlepko,
Hunger-Holocaust
, 176-177;
Time
, 11 September 1933. Final paragraph: Werth, “Un État”; Marochko,
Holodomor
, 283. In fairness to Herriot: he abstained in the June 1940 parliamentary vote to grant Petain full powers in France and was arrested and sent to Germany at the end of the German occupation.

CHAPTER 2: CLASS TERROR

1
Quotations: Siriol Colley,
More Than a Grain
, 212, 216.

2
Jones is cited in Siriol Colley,
More Than a Grain
, 218.

3
Quotation: Evans,
Coming
, 330.

4
On German voters, see King, “Ordinary,” 987-988 and passim. On Dachau, see Goeschel,
Concentration Camps
, 14. For quotation and analysis of Himmler, see Eiber, “Gewalt in KZ Dachau,” 172.

5
Evans,
Power
, 23.

6
Quotation:
Deutschösterreichische Tageszeitung
, 3 March 1933.

7
On “class against class,” see Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 85. On voting behavior, see King, “Ordinary,” 987-988. See also, generally, Bayerlein, “Abschied.”

8
Longerich,
Politik der Vernichtung
, 26-32, quotation at 38; Tooze,
Wages of Destruction
,
73
.

9
On the 37,000 German Jews, see Evans,
Power
, 15. See also Longerich,
Politik der Vernichtung
, 126.

10
Longerich,
Politik der Vernichtung
, 35.

11
Goeschel,
Concentration Camps
, 7.

12
See, generally, Krüger,
Die Außenpolitik
; Turner,
Stresemann
; Snyder,
Sketches
.

13
Roos,
Polen
, 130-154; Ken,
Collective Security
, 94, 157; Kornat,
Polityka
, 32-33; Rossino,
Hitler
, 2.

14
Quotation: Davies,
Kaganovich Correspondence
, 33.

15
The surest guide is Kołakowski,
Main Currents.
The most famous anecdotal definition is that provided by the veteran communist to Jorgé Semprun at Buchenwald: “C’est l’art et la manière de toujours retomber sur ces pattes, mon vieux!”

16
Graziosi, “New Interpretation.”

17
See, generally, Haslam,
Collective Security
; Furet,
Passé
; and Brown,
Rise and Fall.

18
These numbers will be elucidated in this and the following chapter.

19
On the dialectics involved, see Burrin,
Fascisme
,
nazisme
,
autoritarisme
, 202, 209. See also, generally, Weber,
Hollow Years
. On Blum, see Judt,
Burden of Responsibility.

20
Haslam,
Collective Security
, 120-121. On the Soviet press, see Schlögel,
Terror
, 136-137. See also, generally, Beevor,
Battle for Spain.
On the essential point, I am following Furet,
Passé.

21
Orwell,
Homage
, 53-64. Quotation: Schlögel,
Terror
, 148. See also Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 89.

22
On 11 May, see Kuromiya, “Anti-Russian,” 1427.

23
Quotation: Kuromiya, “Notatka,” 133, also 119.

24
Levine,
In Search of Sugihara
, 13-89; Kuromiya,
Między Warszawą a Tokio
, 160-175; Siriol Colley,
Incident.

25
Haslam analyzes China within the Popular Front framework; see
East
, 64-70. On Xinjiang, see Millward,
Eurasian Crossroads
, 206-207. On the “Long March,” see Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 100.

26
See Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 136.

27
Quotation: McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 121.

28
Khlevniuk, “Objectives”; Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 118-119.

29
Quotation: Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 134, also 101.

30
On the history of the troika, see Wheatcroft, “Mass Killings,” 126-139. For general introductions to the state police, see Andrew,
KGB
; and Dziak,
Chekisty.

31
Getty,
Yezhov
, 140; Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 116.

32
On Yezhov’s associates and their methods, see Wheatcroft, “Agency,” 38-40. For Stalin’s solicitude about Yezhov’s health, see Getty,
Yezhov
, 216.

33
Quotation: Haslam,
Collective Security
, 129. For Bukharin’s threat, see Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 83.

34
Quotation: Brown,
Rise and Fall
, 122. There were of course exceptions, such as Antoni Słonimski; see Shore,
Caviar and Ashes
, 150. On fascism and anti-fascism, see Furet,
Passé.

35
Werth,
Terreur
, 282. See also Kuromiya,
Stalin
, 121. The theme of strength in weakness was developed by Furet,
Passé.

36
Orwell,
Homage
, 145-149, at 149. See also Furet,
Passé
, 296, 301, 306; and Haslam,
Collective Security
, 133.

37
56,209 is the number of executions remaining after the subtraction: of those in the national actions (see next chapter) and the kulak action from the total 681,692 executions carried out in the Great Terror of 1937-1938. I provide a general figure because slightly different totals for the kulak action circulate; see Jansen,
Executioner
, 75. On the Red Army generals, see Wieczorkiewicz,
Łańcuch
, 296. This is a fundamental work on the military purges.

38
Evans,
Power
, 21-22.

39
Ibid., 34, 39; Shore,
Information
, 31, 37.

40
On Himmler’s rise, see Longerich,
Himmler.
On the police structures, see Westermann, “Ideological Soldiers,” 45. I am simplifying the situation considerably by not discussing the federal structure of the German state. This, too, was seen by Himmler as a problem to be overcome. The police institutions noted here will be discussed further in Chapters 5, 6, and 7.

41
Evans,
Power
, 627; Lee,
Dictatorships
, 172.

42
These killing actions by German police are the subjects of Chapters 6 and 7.

43
Compare Wheatcroft, “Mass Killing,” 139.

44
Quotations: Baberowski,
Feind
, 758-759.

45
Werth,
Terreur
, 280; Viola,
Forgotten Gulag
, 195.

46
On religious faith, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 124; and Binner, “S etoj,” 181-183.

47
Shearer, “Social Disorder,” 527-531, quotation at 531.

48
On the Siberian Terror, see Ablažej, “Die ROVS-Operation,” 287-298; Baberowski,
Terror
, 189-190; and Kuromiya, “Accounting,” 93.

49
Binner, “Massenmord,” 561-562; Werth,
Terreur
, 283. On “an extra thousand,” Jansen,
Executioner
, 82, 87.

50
For “once and for all,” see Binner, “Massenmord,” 565, also 567. For the cited numbers, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 93.

51
Vashlin,
Terror
, 38. For “better too far . . . ,” see Baberowski,
Terror
, 192.

52
Binner, “Massenmord,” 565-568.

53
Ibid., 567.

54
Ibid., 568. On the latrine incident, see Michniuk, “Przeciwko Polakom,” 118. See also Weissberg,
Wielka czystka
, 293. For the signing of blank pages, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 127.

55
Binner, “Massenmord,” 571-577. Sometimes Stalin’s orders were very local and precise; for examples, see Kuz’niatsou,
Kanveer
, 72-73. Some 1,825 prisoners of Solovki would eventually be shot.

56
On Omsk, see Binner, “Massenmord,” 657-580. On the sentencing of 1,301 people in a single night, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 129. See also Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 150.

57
For quotation and details on the execution techniques, see McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 130, 131; and Schlögel,
Terror
, 602, 618. On the explosives, see Gregory,
Terror
, 71.

58
On the shooting of 35,454 people, see Junge,
Vertikal’
, 201. On the remaining numbers, see Binner, “S etoj,” 207. On the camps, see Werth,
Terreur
, 285; and Khlevniuk,
Gulag
, 332. On the elderly, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 99. On the shooting of thirty-five deaf and dumb people,” see Schlögel,
Terror
, 624; McLoughlin, “Mass Operations,” 136; and Binner, “Massenmord,” 590.

59
On the events of December and February, see Nikol’skij, “Kulakenoperation,” 623; and Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 100. On Leplevskii’s interpretations of the categories of Order 00447, see Šapoval, “Behandlung,” 339, 341. On the arrests of 40,530 people, see Nikol’s’kyi, “Represyvna,” 153. On the 23,650 people added to the death quota, see Šapoval, “Behandlung,” 343. For the figures 70,868 and 35,563 and 830, see Junge,
Vertikal’
, 533. For the figures 1,102 and 1,226, see Nikol’skij, “Kulakenoperation,” 634-635.