Europe: A History (241 page)

97.
Ibid.

98.
Ibid. 30, 4 Aug. 1914.

99.
Ibid. 31.

100.
Lutz,
Lord Grey and the World War
, 156.

101.
See K. H. Jarausch,
The Enigmatic Chancellor: Bethmann Hollweg and the Hubris of imperial Germany
(New Haven, Conn., 1972).

102.
Ibid. 70.

103.
K. H. Jarausch, ‘The Illusion of Limited War: Bethmann Hollweg’s Calculated Risk, July 1914’,
Central European History
(Atlanta), 2 (1969), 48–78.

104.
Jarausch,
Enigmatic Chancellor
, 149.

105.
15 Nov. 1913, Bethmann to the Crown Prince, quoted by Jarausch, ‘The Illusion of Limited War’.

106.
8 July 1914, ibid.

107.
Jarausch,
Enigmatic Chancellor
, 149.

108.
Prince Berahard von Bülow,
Memoirs, iii: 1909–19
(London, 1932), 161—not a friendly witness.

109.
L. Cecil,
Albert Ballin: Business and Politics in Imperial Germany, 1888–1918
(Princeton, NJ, 1967), 122 ff.

110.
Von Bülow,
Memoirs
, iii. 159–60.

111.
Encyclopaedia Britannica
, 12th edn. (London, 1922), xxx. 453–4.

112.
Quoted by Jarausch, ‘The Illusion of Limited War’.

113.
Ibid. 54.

114.
Ibid. 58.

115.
Ibid. 75–6.

116.
27 July 1914, ibid.

117.
A. and V. Palmer,
Quotations in History
, no. 1751.

118.
This is the thesis of Fritz Fischer,
Griff nach der Weltmacht
(1969), trans. as
War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to 1914
(London, 1972). For the crucial sequence of events on 29–30 July, see 492–8.

119.
Von Bülow,
Memoirs
, iii. 163.

120.
Fischer,
War of Illusions
, 511.

121.
Palmer,
Quotations in History
, no. 1752.

122.
Jarausch, ‘The Illusion of Limited War’, 71 ff.

123.
The phrase ‘a scrap of paper’ certainly accords with Bethmann Hollweg’s sentiments on Belgian neutrality as confirmed that same day by his speech to the Reichstag. But the earliest documentary source for his use of the particular form of words would seem to be the British Ambassador’s report written four days later. From there it was taken up by all the standard reference works. Sir E. Goschen to Sir Edward Grey, London, 8 August 1914, HMSO,
Collected Diplomatic Documents Relating to the Outbreak of the European War
(London, 1915), no. 160, p. 111; Speech of the Imperial German Chancellor before the German Reichstag, on 4 Aug. 1914, ibid. 436–9; Palmer,
Quotations in History
, 18;
Everyman’s Dictionary of Quotations
(London, 1951), no. 215.

124.
Marcel Proust,
Correspondence
, ed. P. Kolb, iii (1914) (Paris, 1985), no. 16.

125.
The Letters of Virginia Woolf
(London, 1976), ii. no. 708.

126.
C. Hassall,
Rupert Brooke: A Biography
(London, 1964), 454–5.

127.
The Letters of D. H. Lawrence
, ed. J. T. Boulton (Cambridge, 1981), ii. no. 851, to Lady Cynthia Asquith, 30 Jan. 1915.

128.
The Letters of Thomas Mann, 1889–1955
, ed. R. and C. Winston (London, 1970), i. 69–70, to Heinrich Mann, 7 Aug. 1914.

129.
Count Carlo Sforza, ‘Tisza, the Magyar’, in
Makers of Modern Europe
(London, 1930), 65.

130.
D. A. Prater,
European of Yesterday: A Biography of Stefan Zweig
(Oxford, 1972).

131.
Ibid.

132.
See Isaac Deutscher,
The Prophet Armed: Trotsky 1879–1921
(Oxford, 1954).

133.
Robert Service,
Lenin: A Political Life
, 2nd edn. (Basingstoke, 1991), ii, ch. 2, ‘Storms before the Storm’, 34–71.

134.
Quoted by A. Solzhenitsyn,
August 1914
(London, 1971), 59 ff.

135.
F. A. Golder,
Documents of Russian History
(New York, 1927), 3–23; quoted by R. Pipes,
The Russian Revolution, 1899–1919
(London, 1990), 211.

136.
R. Rolland,
Journal des années de guerre, 1914–19
, ed. M. R. Rolland (Paris, 1952).

137.
Michael Davie,
The Titanic: the full story of a disaster
(London, 1986); G. J. Marcus,
The Maiden Voyage: a complete and documentary history of the Titanic disaster
(London, 1988); A. Rostron,
The Loss of the Titanic
(Westbury, 1991).

138.
A. J. P. Taylor, ‘The Outbreak of the First World War’, in
Englishmen and Others
(London, 1956).

139.
Taylor, quoted by Paul Kennedy, ‘Profound Forces in History’, in C. J. Wrigley (ed.),
Warfare, Diplomacy and Politics: Essays in Honour of A. J. P. Taylor
(London, 1986), abridged in
History Today
, 36 (Mar. 1986), 11.

140.
Taylor, ‘The Outbreak of the First World War’:
Struggle for Mastery in Europe
(Oxford, 1954), chapter xxii.

141.
Taylor, quoted by Kennedy, ‘Profound Forces in History’
(History Today)
, 12.

CHAPTER XI

1.
Anna Akhmatova (1889–1966),
Selected Poems
, trans. and introd. S. Kunitz with M. Hayward (London, 1989), no. 16, ‘Chem khuzhe etot vyek pryedshetvuyushikh?’ (1919), 70.

2.
See Norman Stone,
The Eastern Front
(London, 1975); also A. Clark,
Suicide of the Empires: The Battles on the Eastern Front, 1914–18
(London, 1971).

3.
K. Rosen-Zawadzki, ‘Karta Buduszczej Jewropy’,
Studia z dziejów ZSRR i Srodkowej Europy
(Wroclaw, 1972), viii. 141–5, with map.

4.
R. Pipes,
The Russian Revolution, 1899–1919
(London, 1990), 419.

5.
J. and J. Bogle,
A Heart for Europe: The Lives of Emperor Charles and Empress Zita of Austria-Hungary
(Leominster, 1990), chs. 7,8.

6.
Pipes,
The Russian Revolution
, 492.

7.
Ibid. 553.

8.
RAF Casualty Reports, 1–10 Sept. 1918, Public Record Office, London—Air 1/858/204/5/418 (opened 1969).

9.
See Adolf Juzwenko,
Polska a ‘Biota’ Rosja
(Poland and the Russian ‘Whites’), Wrocław 1973 (with French summaries).

10.
See David Footman,
The Civil War in Russia
(London, 1961). On the demographic statistics of Soviet history, see n. 35 below.

11.
See R. L. Tokes,
Bela Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic, 1918–19
(New York, 1967); I. Volges,
Hungary in Revolution, 1918–19: Nine Essays
(Lincoln, Nebr., 1971).

12.
See Norman Davies, ‘The Missing Revolutionary War’,
Soviet Studies
, 27/2 (1975), 178–95; also
White Eagle, Red Star. The Polish–Soviet War, 1919–20
(London, 1972).

13.
Lord D’Abernon,
The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of World History
(London, 1931), 8–9.

14.
See P. B. Kinross,
Ataturk: The Birth of a Nation
(London, 1964); Alan Palmer,
Kemal Ataturk
(London, 1991); M. Llewellyn-Smith,
The Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–22
(London, 1973); M. Houspian,
Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of a City
(London, 1972).

15.
See Walter Lacqueur (ed.),
Fascism: A Reader’s Guide
(Berkeley, Calif., 1976).

16.
See Hannah Arendt,
The Origins of Totalitarianism
(London, 1986), first published as
The Burden of our Time
(1951); also Leonard Shapiro,
Totalitarianism
(London, 1972).

17.
See Carl Friedrich, ‘The Unique Character of Totalitarian Society’, in
Totalitarianism
(Cambridge, Mass., 1954); also C. Friedrich
et al., Totalitarianism in Perspective: Three Views
(New York, 1969).

18.
Vyacheslav Molotov, 6 Nov. 1939, and Hermann Göring, 9 Apr. 1933.

19.
Hugh Seton-Watson, in
The Imperialist Revolutionaries
( London, 1961).

20.
Denis Mack Smith, ‘The March on Rome’,
Mussolini
(London, 1981), 52 ff.; see also Adrian Lyttleton,
The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–29
(London, 1987).

21.
Mack Smith, ‘The March on Rome’, 240, described Mussolini as ‘one of the few people whom [Hitler] really liked’.

22.
Quoted by R. Albrecht-Carrié,
The Unity of Europe: An Historical Survey
(London, 1966), 223–4.

23.
Retranslated from the French;
Dictionnaire Quillet
(Paris, 1935), i. 602.

24.
P. Hollander,
Political Pilgrims: Travels of Western Intellectuals to the Soviet Union, China and Cuba, 1928–78
(New York, 1981); also S. Margulies,
The Pilgrimage to Russia: The Soviet Union and the Treatment of Foreigners, 1924–37
(Madison, 1965).

25.
Michael Holroyd, ‘Fellow Traveller’, extract from
George Bernard Shaw: A Biography
(London, 1991);
Sunday Times
, 15 Sept. 1991.

26.
See P. Slater,
The Origin and Influence of the Frankfurt School
(London, 1977).

27.
See
Europa, Europa: das Jahrhundert der avantgarde in Mittel- und Osteuropa
, an exhibition at the Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschlands, Bonn, 27 May-16 Oct. 1994, directed by Ryszard Stanisławski and Christoph Brockhaus; catalogue (Bonn, 1994), 4 vols.

28.
S. O’Faolain,
Constance Markievicz
(London, 1934); also Anne Haverty,
Constance Markievicz: An Independent Life
(London, 1988).

29.
Sheila Fitzpatrick,
The Russian Revolution, 1917–32
(Oxford, 1982).

30.
Col. Robins, 1918, quoted by Isaac Deutscher,
The Prophet Armed: Trotsky 1879–1921
(Oxford, 1954); also by A. J. P. Taylor, ‘Trotsky’, in
Englishmen and Others
(London, 1956), 135.

31.
L. B. Trotsky,
Stalin: An Appraisal of the Man and His Influence
(1941; new edn. London, 1968).

32.
In 1936; quoted by John Maynard, ‘The Two Disciplines’, in
The Russian Peasant and Other Studies
(London, 1942).

33.
See Alec Nove,
Was Stalin Really Necessary? Some Problems of Soviet Political Economy
(London, 1964); also J. Arch Getty,
The Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered
(Cambridge, 1988).

34.
Alexis Tolstoy; quoted by Trotsky,
Stalin
, op. cit.

35.
For decades, many historians counted Stalin’s victims in ‘hundreds’ or ‘thousands’, whilst others, such as Solzhenitsyn, talked of ‘tens of millions’. Since the collapse of the USSR, the highest estimates have been vindicated. See R. Conquest,
The Great Terror: A Re-assessment
(London, 1992); also Conquest’s review of the semi-repentant ‘revisionists’ (J. Arch Getty and R. T. Manning (eds.),
Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives
(Cambridge, 1993)), in
TLS
Feb. 1994. Yet no precise statistical breakdown has been produced. Studies based on ‘the demographic gap’ of c.27 million for 1941–5, for example, make no distinction between Soviet citizens killed by the Nazis and those killed by the Soviet regime itself. No proper analysis of losses in the USSR by nationality has been forthcoming. See Norman Davies, ‘Neither Twenty Million, nor Russians, nor War Deaths’,
Independent
, 29 Dec. 1987; also M. Ellman, ‘On Sources: A Note’,
Soviet
Studies
, 44/5 (1992), 913–15.

36.
Quoted by A. J. P. Taylor, ‘Hitler’s “Seizure of Power”’, in
Englishmen and Others
, 139–53.

37.
Alan Bullock,
Hitler: A Study in Tyranny
, rev. edn. (London, 1964), 773.

38.
Ian Kershaw,
The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation
, 2nd edn. (London, 1989), 42–60. See also Tim Mason, ‘The Primacy of Politics: Politics and Economics in National Socialist Germany’, in H. A. Turner (ed.),
Nazism and The Third Reich
(New York, 1972), 175–200.

39.
Adolf Hitler,
Mein Kampf
, trans. R. Manheim (London, 1969), introd. by D. C. Watt, ch. 11, ‘Nation and Race’.

40.
Ibid. 260.

41.
Ibid. 587.

42.
Ibid. 598.

43.
Ibid.

44.
Quoted by D. Thompson,
Europe since Napoleon
(London, 1966), 727.

45.
George Watson, ‘Hitler’s Marxism’, in
The Idea of Liberalism: Studies for a New Map of Politics
(London, 1985), 110–25.

46.
See R. Grunberger,
A Social History of the Third Reich
(London, 1971); also T. Childers,
The Nazi Voter: The Social Foundations of Fascism in Germany
(London, 1983).

47.
See Kershaw,
The Nazi Dictatorship
, 18–41.

48.
Cf. Celia Heller,
On the Edge of Destruction
(New York, 1977), with L. Dobroszycki and B. Kirschenblatt-Gimblett (eds.),
Image Before my Eyes: A Photographic History of Jewish Life in Poland, 1864–1939
(New York, 1977–8). For a fine period piece, see Lewis
Namier, ‘The Jews in the Modern World’ (1934), in
In the Margin of History
(London, 1940).

49.
From Lewis Namier, ‘Yugoslavia’, in
Facing East
(London, 1947), 66–82, a review of Rebecca West’s wonderful travelogue,
Black Lamb and Grey Falcon
(London, 1942).

50.
Arthur Koestler,
Spanish Testament
(London, 1937); see also his
Darkness at Noon
(London, 1968).

51.
See D. W. Pike,
In the Service of Stalin: The Spanish Communists in Exile, 1939–45
(Oxford, 1993).