Iron Kingdom : The Rise and Downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947 (128 page)

17.
Matthias Schmoeckel,
Humanität und Staatsraison. Die Abschaffung der Folter in Europa und die Entwicklung des gemeinen Strafprozess-und Beweisrechts seit dem hohen Mittelalter
(Cologne, 2000), pp. 19–33.

18.
Evans,
Rituals
, p. 122.

19.
Blanning, ‘Frederick the Great’, p. 282.

20.
Jonathan I. Israel,
Radical Enlightenment. Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750
(Oxford, 2001), pp. 659–63.

21.
Kant, ‘Was ist Aufklärung?’, p. 96. A similar argument is advanced in Kant’s essay ‘On the Common Saying: “This May Be True in Theory but Does Not Apply in Practice” ’ (first published in the
Berlinische Monatsschrift
, 1793); see Immanuel Kant,
Political Writings
, ed. Hans Reiss, trans. H. B. Nisbet (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1991), pp. 61–92, here esp. pp. 79, 81, 84–5.

22.
Blanning,
The Culture of Power
, pp. 103–82.

23.
Möller,
Vernunft und Kritik
, p. 303.

24.
This quotation is from the senior Prussian judicial official Leopold von Kircheisen and dates from 1792, six years after Frederick II’s death. It is cited from Hull,
Sexuality, State and Civil Society
, p. 215.

25.
John Moore,
A View of Society and Manners in France, Switzerland and Germany
(2 vols., 4th edn, Dublin, 1789; first pub. anon., 1779), vol. 2, p. 130, cited in Blanning, ‘Frederick the Great’, p. 287.

26.
Friedrich Nicolai,
Beschreibung der Königlichen Residenzstädte Berlin und Potsdam, aller daselbst befindlicher Markwürdigkeiten und der umliegenden Gegend
(2 vols., Berlin, 1786), vol. 2, pp. 839–40.

27.
Hilde Spiel,
Fanny von Arnstein. Daughter of the Enlightenment 1758–1818
, trans. Christine Shuttleworth (Oxford, 1991), pp. 15–16.

28.
Stern,
Der preussische Staat
, part 3, vol. 2,
Die Zeit Friedrichs II
. (Tübingen, 1971), passim.

29.
Frederick William I, Political Testament of 1722, in Dietrich (ed.),
Die politischen Testamente
, pp. 221–43, here p. 236.

30.
Frederick II, Political Testament of 1768, in Dietrich (ed.),
Die politischen Testamente
, pp. 462–697, here p. 507.

31.
Mordechai Breuer, ‘The Early Modern Period’, in Michael A. Meyer and Michael Brenner (eds.),
German-Jewish History in Modern Times
(4 vols., New York, 1996), vol. 1,
Tradition and Enlightenment 1600–1780
, pp. 79–260, here pp. 146–9.

32.
Stefi Jersch-Wenzel, ‘Minderheiten in der preussischen Gesellschaft’, inBüsch and Neugebauer (eds.),
Moderne preussische Geschichte
, vol. 1, part 2, pp. 486–506, here p. 492.

33.
Dorwart,
Prussian Welfare State
, p. 129; Stern,
Der preussische Staat
, part 2,
Die Zeit Friedrich Wilhelms I.
, Part 2, Akten, doc. nos. 7, 8, 211 and passim.

34.
J. H. Callenberg,
Siebente Fortsetzung seines Berichts von einem Versuch, das arme jüdische Volck zur Annehmung der christlichen Wahrheit anzuleiten
(Halle, 1734), pp. 92–3, 126, 142. See also id.,
Relation von einer weiteren Bemühung, Jesum Christum als den Heyland des menschlichen Geschlechts dem Jüdischen Volcke bekannt zu machen
(Halle, 1738), pp. 134, 149.

35.
Michael Graetz, ‘The Jewish Enlightenment’, in Meyer and Brenner (eds.),
German-Jewish History
, vol. 1, pp. 261–380, here p. 311.

36.
Charlene A. Lea, ‘Tolerance Unlimited: The “Noble Jew” on the German and Austrian Stage (1750–1805)’,
The German Quarterly
, 64/2 (1991), pp. 167–77.

37.
Spiel,
Fanny von Arnstein
, p. 19; David Sorkin,
The Transformation of German Jewry, 1780–1840
(New York, 1987), p. 8 and passim.

38.
Cited in Michael Graetz, ‘The Jewish Enlightenment’, in Meyer and Brenner (eds.),
German-Jewish History
, vol. 1, p. 274.

39.
Deborah Hertz,
Jewish High Society in Old-regime Berlin
(New Haven and London, 1988), pp. 95–118; Steven M. Lowenstein,
The Berlin Jewish Community. Enlightenment, Family and Crisis, 1770–1830
(New York, 1994), pp. 104–10.

40.
Christian Wilhelm Dohm,
über die bürgerliche Verbesserung der Juden
(2 vols., Berlin and Stettin, 1781–3), vol. 1, p. 130.

41.
Dohm,
über die bürgerliche Verbesserung
, vol 1, p. 28. For commentaries on the book and its context, see esp. R. Liberles, ‘The Historical Context of Dohm’s Treatise on the Jews’, in Friedrich-Naumann-Stiftung (ed.),
Das deutsche Judentum und der Liberalismus – German Jewry and Liberalism
(Königswinter, 1986), pp. 44–69; Horst Möller, ‘Aufklärung, Judenemanzipation und Staat. Ursprung und Wirkung von Dohms Schrift über die bürgerliche Verbesserung der Juden’, in W. Grab (ed.),
Deutsche Aufklärung und Judenemanzipation. Internationales Symposium anlässlich der 250. Geburtstage Lessings und Mendelssohns
(
Jahrbuch des Instituts für deutsche Geschichte
, Suppl. 3; Tel Aviv, 1980), pp. 119–49.

42.
Spiel,
Fanny von Arnstein
, p. 183.

43.
Ibid., p. 184.

44.
The play is discussed in Michael A. Meyer, ‘Becoming German, Remaining Jewish’, in Meyer and Brenner (eds.),
German-Jewish History
, vol. 2, pp. 199–250, here pp. 204–6. On anti-Jewish satire more generally, see Charlene A. Lea,
Emancipation, Assimilation and Stereotype. The Image of the Jew in German and Austrian Drama (1800–1850)
(Bonn, 1978); Mark H. Gelber, ‘Wandlungen im Bild des “gebildeten Juden” in der
deutschen Literatur’,
Jahrbuch des Instituts für deutsche Geschichte
, 13 (1984), pp. 165–78.

45.
The conversion problem is discussed in Hertz,
Jewish High Society
; see also ead., ‘Seductive Conversion in Berlin, 1770–1809’, in Todd Endelman (ed.),
Jewish Apostasy in the Modern World
(New York and London, 1990), pp. 48–82; Lowenstein,
The Berlin Jewish Community
, pp. 120–33.

46.
Cited in James Sheehan,
German History 1770–1866
(Oxford, 1993), p. 293.

47.
As Frederick remained childless, the right of succession passed to his younger brother, August William, who died in 1758, leaving his son as heir to the throne.

48.
Kunisch,
Friedrich der Grosse
, p. 285.

49.
David E. Barclay, ‘Friedrich Wilhelm II (1786–1797)’, in Kroll (ed.),
Preussens Herrscher
, pp. 179–96.

50.
Thomas P. Saine,
The Problem of Being Modern. Or, the German Pursuit of Enlightenment from Leibniz to the French Revolution
(Detroit, Michigan, 1997), p. 300.

51.
Dirk Kemper (ed.),
Missbrauchte Aufklärung? Schriften zum preussischen Religionsedikt vom 9. Juli 1788
(Hildesheim, 1996); Ian Hunter, ‘Kant and the Prussian Religious Edict. Metaphysics within the Bounds of Political Reason Alone’, Working Paper, Centre of the History of European Discourses, University of Queensland, accessed online at
http://eprint.uq.edu.au/archive/00000396/01/hunterkant.pdf
; last accessed 30 December 2003.

52.
See the editor’s and translator’s commentaries in A. W. Wood and G. Di Giovanni (eds.),
Immanuel Kant: Religion and Rational Theology
(Cambridge, 1996); Saine,
The Problem of Being Modern
, pp. 289–309; Paul Schwartz,
Der erste Kulturkampf in Preussen um Kirche und Schule (1788–1798)
, (Berlin 1925), pp. 93–107; Klaus Epstein,
The Genesis of German Conservatism
(Princeton, NJ, 1966), pp. 360–68.

53.
This view of Wöllner is persuasively set out in Michael J. Sauter, ‘Visions of the Enlightenment: The Edict on Religion of 1788 and Political Reaction in Eighteenth-century Prussia’, Ph.D. thesis, Department of History, University of California, Los Angeles (2002).

54.
Kemper,
Missbrauchte Aufklärung?
, p. 227.

55.
For an interesting discussion of the edict, which draws useful comparisons with the language of the Prussian Law Code, see Nicholas Hope,
German and Scandinavian Protestantism, 1700 to 1918
(Oxford, 1995), pp. 312–13. On the traces of enlightenment in the edict, see especially Fritz Valjavec, ‘Das Woellnersche Religionsedikt und seine geschichtliche Bedeutung’,
Historisches Jahrbuch
, 72 (1952), pp. 386–400. On instrumental views of religion, see Epstein,
Genesis
, p. 150.

56.
Kurt Nowak,
Geschichte des Christenthums in Deutschland. Religion, Politik und Gesellschaft vom Ende der Aufklärung bis zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts
(Munich, 1995), pp. 15–36.

57.
Hunter, ‘Kant and the Prussian Religious Edict’, p, 7.

58.
Ibid. pp. 11–12.

59.
Frederick William II, cabinet order of 10 September 1788, cited in Klaus Berndl, ‘Neues zur Biographie von Ernst Ferdinand Klein’, in Eckhart Hellmuth, Immo Meenken and Michael Trauth (eds.),
Zeitenwende? Preussen um 1800
(Stuttgart, 1999), pp. 139–82, here p. 161, n. 118.

60.
Saine,
The Problem of Being Modern
, pp. 294–308.

61.
Berndl, ‘Ernst Ferdinand Klein’, pp. 162–4.

62.
Wilhelm Schrader,
Geschichte der Friedrichs-Universität zu Halle
(2 vols., Berlin, 1894), vol. 1, p. 521; Epstein,
Genesis
, pp. 364–7; Berndl, ‘Ernst Ferdinand Klein’, pp. 167–70.

63.
Horst Möller,
Aufklärung in Preussen. Der Verleger, Publizist und Geschichtsschreiber Friedrich Nicolai
(Berlin, 1974), p. 213.

64.
Axel Schumann, ‘Berliner Presse und Französische Revolution: Das Spektrum der Meinungen unter preussischer Zensur 1789–1806’, Ph.D. thesis, Technische Universität, Berlin (2001), accessed online at
http://webdoc.gwdg.de/ebook/p/2003/tu-berlin/schumann axel.pdf
; last accessed 31 December 2003, esp. pp. 227–41.

65.
Journal des Luxus
, 11 (1796), p. 428, cited in Hellmuth, ‘Die “Wiedergeburt” ’, pp. 21–52, here p. 22.

66.
For an excellent survey of social life in Berlin at this time, on which the following two paragraphs are based, see Florian Maurice,
Freimaurerei um 1800. Ignaz Aurelius Fessler und die Reform der Grossloge Royal York in Berlin
(Tübingen, 1997), pp. 129–66.

67.
Gerhard Ritter,
Stein. Eine politische Biographie
(Stuttgart, 1958), pp. 29, 31, 34, 37, 39, 40; Guy Stanton Ford,
Stein and the Era of Reform in Prussia, 1807–1815
(2nd edn, Gloucester, MA, 1965), pp. 4–26, 31–2.

68.
Ford,
Stein
, pp. 33–4.

69.
Ritter,
Stein
, p. 71.

70.
Silke Lesemann, ‘Prägende Jahre. Hardenbergs Herkunft und Amtstätigkeit in Hannover und Braunschweig (1771–1790)’, in Thomas Stamm-Kuhlmann (ed.),
‘Freier Gebrauch der Kräfte’. Eine Bestandaufnahme der Hardenberg-Forschung
(Munich, 2001), pp. 11–30, here pp. 11–18.

71.
Lesemann, ‘Prägende Jahre’, pp. 18–25.

72.
It had long been agreed that Ansbach and Bayreuth would fall to Prussia upon the death of the reigning Hohenzollern margrave. In 1792, however, under the pressure of events in France and of his own immense debts, he allowed himself to be ‘bought out’ prematurely by Berlin.

73.
Andrea Hofmeister-Hunger,
Pressepolitik und Staatsreform. Die Institutionalisierung staatlicher öffentlichkeitsarbeit bei Karl August von Hardenberg (1792–1822)
(Göttingen, 1994), pp. 32–47; Rudolf Endres, ‘Hardenbergs fränkisches Reformmodell’, in Stamm-Kuhlmann (ed.),
Hardenberg-Forschung
, pp. 31–49, here p. 38.