Modern Times: The World From the Twenties to the Nineties (184 page)

Okhrana (secret police), 68

Okinawa, 424

Okuma, Count Shigenobu, 185

Olivetti, Angelo, 57

Olympio, Sylvanus, 517

‘On the Socialization of the Land’ Law (Russia, 1918), 92

OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), 667 668–9, 670

‘Operation Barbarossa’, 379–81

‘Operation Decision’, 425

‘Operation Musketeer’, 491

‘Operation Pincher’, 441

Ophuls, Max, 113

Oppenheimer, Robert, 407, 424

Oran, 366, 368, 496

Oranienburg, 418

Orden
, 124, 125

Ordzhonikidze, G.K., 301

Orgburo (Organization Bureau), 83, 84, 87

Ortega, Daniel, 705

Ortodoxos
(Cuban party), 619, 620

Orwell, George, 162, 334, 335, 336, 338, 471

Oshima, General Hiroshi, 396

OSS (Office of Strategic Services), 437, 458, 631

Outer Mongolia, 192

Owen, Wilfred, 163

Oxford Union, 349

ozone layer, 774–5

Pacific region, 730, 735, 736, 747

pacifism, 348–50

‘Pact of Steel’ (1939), 321, 359

Page, Kirvy, 260

Pahlevi, Reza, Shah of Persia, 45, 606, 665, 673, 710–13

Pakistan, 157, 686, 719; in ‘northern tier’, 489; militarism, 568, 570; economy, 568, 573; war with India, 568–9

Pal, Radhabino, 428

Palestine, 22, 43, 439, 481–5; limited Jewish immigration, 420, 482; as Jewish National

Home 481, 484; Jewish terrorism, 482—3; American impingement on, 484; partition, 484–5; Arab refugees, 486–7, 703

Palme, Olaf, 715

Palmer, Mitchell, 205, 206, 209, 212

Panama, 752–3

Panunzio, Vito, 101

Papadopoulos, Colonel George, 611

Papagos, Field Marshal, 610, 611

Papandreou, George, 611

Papen Franz von, 282, 283, 298, 353

Papertin, General Viktor, 719

Paris, Treaty of (1951), 591, 593 parliamentary democracy; Bolshevik destruction of, 71–2, 132; Hitler’s contempt for, 132; disappearance in new African states, 518; India, 567, 570

Partie Populaire Française
, 146

Partita Popolare Trentino
, 578, 579

Pashukanis, Evgeny, 679

Pasternak, Boris, 65, 382

Pater, Walter, 10

Patterson, Robert, 437

Patti, Archimedes, 631

Patton, General George, 250

Pauker, K.V., 300

Paul VI, Pope, 607, 702

Pavlov, D.G., 383

Peace Ballot (1934–5), 350

Peace Conference (Paris, 1919), 25–30, 149

Peace Corps, 615

Peace Pledge Union, 350

Peace Preservation Law (Japan, 1925), 183

Pearl Harbor, 310, 390, 393–4

Pearson Repor t (1969), 692, 693

‘peasant’ novels, 118–19

peasants: in Chinese armies, 198–200; collectivization of, 92–3, 261, 266, 270–1; and industrialization, 265; new ‘attack’ on, 93–4; and Russian Revolution, 59–63, 88, 94, 267; and
Volk
movement, 118

Pegging Act (South Africa, 1943), 552

Péguy, Charles, 19

Peierls, Rudolf, 407

Peking, 195, 446, 556; Marco Polo Bridge ‘incident’, 316; cultural life, 553–4, 559; violence in, 556–8

Peng Chen, 553

‘People’s Courts’, 290

Percival, General A.E., 395, 396

perestroika
, 756

Perlo, Victor, 458

Perloff, H.S., 747

Perón, Juan, 616–18

Persia (now Iran, q.v.), 154, 156

personal responsibility, 10, 11, 70

Peru, 234

Pétain, Marshal Philippe, 365–6, 368, 587

Peters, J. (‘Alexander Stevens’), 458

Petrograd Soviet, 62, 63, 65, 67

Phalanges Universitaires
, 146

Philippines, 393, 395, 736

Phillimore, Walter, 30–1

philosophy, 699

Phnom Penh, 654–5

physics, 775

Picasso, Pablo, 9, 336, 575

PIDE (Police for the Defence of the State, Portugal), 607

Pigou, A.C., 235

Pilsudski, Marshal, 280

Pinochet, General Augusto, 738–9

piracy, 687–8

Piscator, Erwin, 112, 306

Pius x, Pope, 145

Pius xi, Pope, 579

PLA (People’s Liberation Army, China), 561, 566

Planck, Max, 699

‘Platt Amendment’, 616, 619

Plekhanov, G.V., 52

PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization), 483, 666, 687, 688, 708, 709, 710, 715

Pohl, Karl Otto, 763

Poincaré, Raymond, 138, 139–40, 141, 148, 345

Point Four programme, 242, 671

Pol Pot, 656

Poland, 139, 140, 147, 432; creation of, 21, 26, 27; gains from Versailles, 39, 106; minorities, 39; non-aggression treaty with Hitler, 338, 346, 357; German threat to, 357–60; invasion, 360, 362–3; Nazi-Soviet division of, 373; murder of Jews from, 415, 418, 420; Soviet domination, 435; Catholicism, 701–2; economy, 726–7; end of Communist rule, 759, 763

Polenz, Wilhelm von, 119

police-state, German creation of, 285, 286–90

Polisario rebels, 538, 541 political police, 66–71

Political Responsibilities, Law of (Spain, 1939), 339

Pollitt, Harry, 336

Ponchaud, François, 657

Popper, Karl, 3, 6, 37, 577, 699, 780

‘Popular Front’, Communist, 316, 323, 359

Popular Front, French, 151

Popular Front, Spanish, 324, 325–6, 328

Population Registration Act (South Africa, 1950), 523

population trends, 140–1, 188, 588, 596, 722–4, 747–8

Port Arthur, 187, 202, 429, 448

Portal, Air Chief Marshal, 404

Porter, Cole, 227

Portillo, Jose Lopez, 747

Portugal, 188, 189; colonial social engineering, 519–20; political change, 607–8, 745–6; population, 723

‘post-capitalism’, 739

POUM
(Partido Obrero de Uniicatión Marxista)
, 325, 326, 334

poverty problem, 638–40, 691

Powell, Adam Clayton, 477

Prague, 356, 357, 359

Prieto, Indalecio, 325

printing unions, in Britain, 743–4

prisoners-of-war, 427–8

privatization, 744–5

Prohibition, 209–12

Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (South Africa, 1949), 523

proletarian consciousness, 55, 56, 57, 135 proletariat: dictatorship of, 78, 89, 92; as opposed to peasantry, 118; revolution of, 56, 58–63, 191

protectionism, 232, 234, 246

Protestantism, evangelical, 705–6

Proust, Marcel, 9–10, 145

Provisional Government (Russia), 61, 63

psychiatric punishment, 681–2

psychoanalysis, 5–8

Pyatakov, G.L., 307

Qawukji, Fawzi al-, 485

Quine, Willard, 700

Quintanilla, Pepe, 337

Quota Law (US, 1921), 205

race, as basis for colonial land apportionment, 158, 159–60

race-poisoning, 342–3

race theories, 120, 145; Hitler’s, 129, 130

racism: of African states, 526–8, 534; anti-Americanism as, 694; inter-tribal, 527–8, 534; inverted, 516; German, 145, 319, 342–3; Israel accused of, 690;
see also apartheid

Radcliffe, Sir Cyril, 473

Radek, Karl, 49, 82, 92

Radie; Stepan, 40

Radio Corporation of America, 239

Raeder, Admiral Erich, 357, 374

rainforests, destruction of, 774

Rapallo Treaty (1922), 76, 124, 139

Rappaport, Charles, 52–3

Rascher, Dr Sigmund, 418

Rathenau, Walther, 116, 127

Rauschning, Hermann, 293, 354, 409

Ravensbruck, 418

Rawlings, Flight-Lieut. Jerry, 541

Rawlinson, General Sir Henry, 75

Read, Herbert, 163

Reading, Lord, 162

Reagan, Ronald, 748–50, 751–2, 753, 754, 757

Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), 245, 255

Reddy, Snehalata, 570

Reed, James, 34

refugees, 719–20, 735

Reggio Emilia, Congress of (1912), 57

Reichenau, General von, 298

Reinhardt, Max, 112, 113, 131

Reiss, Erich, 117

Relativity, Einstein’s Theory of, 1–5, 11, 406, 453, 698, 699

religious belief: decline in, 7, 48; and economic patterns, 606; survival of, 700–6

reparations, 24, 28, 36, 134, 139

Republican Party, American, 214, 250, 460, 649

Republicans, Spanish, 326–8, 329, 331, 332, 338

Resistance, French, 588

Revenue Act (US, 1932), 245

revolutionary conscience, 85–6, 181

Reynaud, Paul, 365

Rhineland, 21, 26; remilitarization, 320, 349, 352

Rhodes, Cecil, 152

Rhodesia, 508, 509, 538

Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 291, 359, 360, 361, 387

Richthofen, Colonel Wolfgang von, 335

Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich, 118

Riezler, Kurt, 12, 15, 16, 107

Right: French, 143, 346; German, 124–5, 127, 281, 282, 283, 286; Spanish, 322, 328–32

Riom trials, 365, 588

Riotous Assemblies Act (South Africa, 1930), 521

Rist, Charles, 236

Rivera, Primo de, 322

Robbins Report (1963), 642

Robles, Gil, 324, 326

Robles, José, 334, 335, 337

Roca, Blas, 619

Rocca, Enrico, 319

Rockefeller, David, 544

Rodgers, Richard, 227

Roehm, Ernst, 133, 278, 281, 287, 296–9

Rogers, Will, 220 260

Rogers, William, 648

Romania, 21, 105, 147, 361; Russian invasion, 364, 373; murdered Jews from, 415; as Soviet satellite, 434; economy, 727; Ceausescu’s regime, 760–2

Romberg, Sigmund, 227

Rome, Fascist march on (1922), 99–100, 134

Rome, Treaty of (1957), 591, 592, 599

Rome-Berlin Axis (1936), 321, 352

Rommel, Erwin, 374, 399, 411

Roosevelt, Franklin, D., 241, 243, 250, 353, 375, 389, 398, 407, 410, 424, 425, 470, 647; on Hoover, 242; 1932 presidential campaign, 251–3; antipathy between Hoover and, 250–4; credited with recovery from Great Depression, 254–60, 294; economic policies, 255–8; legislation, 255–6; New Deal, 255–7, 259, 344; appeal to intelligentsia, 257–8; attacks on him, 258–9; 1936 electoral victory, 259; isolationism, 310, 344; anti-Japanese, 317, 392; ‘frivolous’ handling of foreign policy, 344–5, 458; proposes non-agression guarantees, 345, 358; and aid to Russia, 371, 384, 385; bedazzled by Stalin, 386, 404, 430, 432–6, 458; pro-Chinese, 391–2, 443, 631; at Yalta, 404, 430, 433; urges unconditional surrender, 411; lip-service to Jewish immigration, 420, 421; accedes to Stalin’s demands, 430; at Teheran, 433; disillusioned over Stalin, 436; anti-Zionist, 484; ‘Good Neighbour’ policy, 616; presidential skulduggery, 650, 651; use of tapes, 652

Roosevelt, Theodore, 16, 214, 218, 249, 251, 258

Rosenberg, Alfred, 284, 292, 414

Rosenberg, Isaac, 163

Rosenberg, Julius and Ethel, 458

Rosenberg, Marcel, 333

Ross, Mary, 225

Rostovtzeff, Michael, 222

Rothermere, Lord, 306

Rothschild, Louis, 235

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 783

Royden, Dr Maude, 350

Ruanda-Urundi, 509

Rubottom, Roy, 621

Rueff, Jacques, 587, 595

Rugumayo, Edward, 534

Ruhr, 124, 134, 141; French occupation, 139, 147; American investment, 280

Rumsfeld, Donald, 672

Rushdie, Salman, 716–17

Rusk, Dean, 614

Russell, Bertrand, 12, 79, 168, 171–2, 264, 349, 699

Russia: predominance of state in Imperial Russia, 14–15; proportion of subject peoples, 20; collapse of Tsarist regime, 21, 54; Bolshevik control of, 22; Lenin’s return to (1917), 49–50, 54, 58–9, 60; Revolution, 59–70; peasantry, 59–63; Provisional Government, 61, 63; first All-Russian Congress of Soviets, 62; first and last true parliamentary election, 64; use of terror, 66–73, 88, 262–3, 266–7, 271, 274–5, 299–308, 383–4; control of press, 64–5; political police, 66–70, 78, 80, 91; Russia
(contd) end of rule of law and democracy, 68, 71–2, 84–5; totalitarianism, 73, 78–94, 277; Western attitude to, 72–6; German military assistance to, 76; ‘union’ of nationalities, 76–7; imperialism, 77, 710–11; constitution (of USSR), 77–8; elimination of non-party opposition, 78–80; supremacy of party, 80–1; economy, 86–93, 676–7, 725–6, 767–8 universal labour service, 91–2, 274; social engineering, 92–3, 94, 241, 261, 266, 270–3, 524; internal struggles, 263–5; destruction of peasants, 267–72; slave labour, 274; show-trials, 274–5, 307; Western credulity on, 275–7, 306–7; political murders and purges, 299–308, 334; beneficiary of Sino-Japanese war, 316–17; and Spanish Civil War, 329–30; pact with Germany, 360–2, 373; German invasion of, 372–80, 382; Great Patriotic War, 382–7; army purges, 383; Western aid to, 385–6; and war crimes, 429–31; war gains, 433–5; and Cold War, 435, 437–8, 539, 614, 685; disputes with Yugoslavia and China, 448–51, 549–51; Iron Curtain, 452; witch-hunt of intellectuals, 453–4; and division of Germany, 585–6; and national liberation wars, 615; and Cuba, 623, 625–7, 684–5; space programme, 629; and Indo-China, 631, 632; and Egypt, 666; post-Stalin stability, 674–85; three-tiered ruling class, 677–8; attempts at liberalizing, 678–9, 682; new terror, 680; penal psychiatry for dissenters, 681–2; naval expansion, 681–2; descent on black Africa, 684–5; growing problems, 698; collapse of Communist ideology, 701; Jews allowed to leave, 709; and Middle East, 715; and Afghanistan, 717–20, 754; and Islam, 720; imperialism, 720–2; population, 722, 723; armaments, 753; leadership problems, 754–5; and the European Community, 765; internal problems, 765–8; end of Cold War, 768; and GulfWar, 770, 771

Rutherford, Lord, 406

Rykov, Alexei, 266, 301

SA (Brownshirts), 124, 278, 281, 286, 287, 290, 292; purge of, 296–8

Saar, 21, 278; reversion to Germany, 351

Sacco, Nicolo, 205

Sachsenhausen, 418

Sack, Erno, 116

Sadat, Anwar El, 538, 667–8, 708, 710

Said, Mohanedi, 497

Saigon, 654

Saito, Admiral Makoto, 185, 314

Sakharov, Andrei, 680, 682, 690

Sakok, Hadj, 497

Salack, Ould, 541

Salan, General Raoul, 503

Salazar, Antonio, 607

Sale of Securities Act (US, 1933), 255

SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), 468, 673