Resurrecting Pompeii (54 page)

Observations on Mt Vesuvius, Mt Etna and Other Volcanoes in a Series of Letters Addressed To the Royal Society
…
To Which Are Added Notes by the Author, Hitherto Unpublished
. London: Royal Society, 1774, 95.
142 Skull TF 111. This interpretation was confirmed by T.H.G. Oettlé (former Director of the New South Wales Forensic Institute, Sydney) to E. Lazer, 1983, personal communication.
143 Baxter, 1990, op. cit., 532; Scott, 1989, op. cit., 11–14; Sigurdsson
et al.
, 1982, op. cit., 49; Sigurdsson
et al.
, 1985, op. cit., 364–65; Sigurdsson, 2002, op. cit., 48–49. 144 S.C. Nappo, ‘Il rinvenimento delle vittime dell’eruzione del 79 d.C. nella Regio 1 insula 22’,
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145 De Carolis and Patricelli, 2003a, op. cit., 66–72; De Carolis and Patricelli, 2003b, op. cit., 111–12; De Carolis
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, 1998, op. cit., 78–123; Luongo
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148 Ibid.
149 Luongo
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150 Giacomelli
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151 Baxter, 1990, op. cit., 539; Blong, 1984, op. cit., 95–103; D’Amore
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153 Baxter, 1990, op. cit., 535–37, 539, 541; B. Knight,
Forensic Pathology
. 2nd edn. London: Arnold, 1996, 309–10; S. Cole (forensic dentist, New South Wales Institute of Forensic Medicine, Sydney) to E. Lazer, 2002, personal communication; C. Lawrence (former forensic pathologist, New South Wales Institute of Forensic Medicine, Sydney) to E. Lazer, 1994, personal communication; A. Middleton (forensic dentist, New South Wales Institute of Forensic Medicine, Sydney) to E. Lazer, 2002, personal communication; V.D. Plueckhahn,
Ethics, Legal Medicine and Forensic Pathology
. Carlton, Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1983, 168.
154 Baxter, 1990, op. cit., 542; Knight, 1996, op. cit., 63–64.
155 Baxter, 1990, op. cit., 532; A.L. Hansell
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Occupational & Environmental Medicine
, Vol. 63, No. 2, 2006, 152; Sigurdsson
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, 1985, op. cit., 365. Though it has been noted that post-eruption epidemic disease and famine actually account for more deaths than pyroclastic density currents. J.-C. Tanguy
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., ‘Victims from volcanic eruptions: A revised database’,
Bulletin of Volcanology
, Vol. 60, No. 2, 1998, 137.
156 Baxter, 1990, op. cit., P.J. Baxter
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Natural Hazards,
Vol. 17, No. 2, 1998: 166–68; Hansell
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, 2006, op. cit., 153.
157 L. Gurioli
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Vol. 33, No. 6, 2005, 441–44. 158 Baxter, 1990, op. cit., 533, 540–41; Baxter
et al.
, 2005, op. cit., 310. 159 Baxter, 1998, op. cit., 166; Lawrence, op. cit.
160 De Carolis and Patricelli, 2003a, op. cit., 72; De Carolis and Patricelli, 2003b, op. cit., 101, P.P. Petrone, ‘Le vittime dell’eruzione del 79
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, ed. P. G. Guzzo. Pompei: Litografia Sicignano, 2005, 31; Sigurdsson and Carey, 2002, op. cit., 55. 161 L. Capasso, ‘Herculaneum victims of the volcanic eruptions of Vesuvius in 79
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The Lancet
, Vol. 356, No. 9238, 2000a: 1344–46; L. Capasso,
I Fuggiaschi di Ercolano: Paleobiologia delle Vittime dell
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Eruzione Vesuviana del 79 d.C
. Roma: ‘L’Erma’ di Bretschneider, 2001, 21–67, 1053–54.
162 G. Mastrolorenzo and P.P. Petrone, ‘Nuove evidenze sugli effetti dell’eruzione del 79d.C. ad Ercolano da ricerche biogeoarcheologiche’,
Forma Urbis
, Vol. 10, No. 3: Edizione speciale: La rinascita di Ercolano, 2005, 31–34; G. Mastrolorenzo
et al.
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, ed. P.G. Guzzo. Pompei: Litografia Sicignano, 2005, 31–44.
163 Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 10–11; Allison, 2004, op. cit., 19.
164 Diodorus Siculus, ‘Diodorus Siculus,’ in
Loeb Classical Library
. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1933–67, 4, 21, 5.
165 Suetonius, op. cit., Caligula, 51.
166
The Etna Poem
, op. cit., Leppmann, 1968, op. cit., 25.
167 Strabo, op. cit., 5, 4, 8.
168
The Etna Poem
, op. cit., 352–53, 431–32.
169 Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 10; Allison, 2004, op. cit., 19.
170 Pliny the Elder, op. cit., II, 200; Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 10–11; Sigurdsson, 1999, op. cit., 56.
171 Bullard, 1984, op. cit., 188–89
172 Plutarch,
Makers of Rome: Nine Lives
, Translated by Scott-Kilvert, I. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1965, 2: 279.
173 Pliny the Younger, op. cit., IV, 16.
174 Especially Suetonius, op. cit., Titus 8 and Dio Cassius, op. cit., LXV, 24. 175 Luongo
et al.
, 2003b, op. cit., 179.
176 Francis, 1993, op. cit., 98.
177 Francis 1993, op. cit., 244; M.L. Nolan, ‘Impact of paricutin on five communities’,in
Volcanic Activity and Human Ecology
, ed. P.D. Sheets and D.K. Grayson. New York: Academic Press, 1979, 302–3; R.S. Punongbayan and R.I. Tilling, ‘Some recent case histories’,in
Volcanic Hazards
, ed. R.I. Tilling,
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. Washington, DC American Geophysical Union, 1989, 82– 83, 90–91, 93, 96–99.
178 Blong, 1984, op. cit., 72–73, 79–80; Grayson and Sheets, 1979, op. cit., 626–27; S. Manning (Department of Classics, University of Reading, UK) to E. Lazer, 1989, personal communication; Russell, 1985, op. cit., 7–8.
179 For example, Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 17–19; Cooley, 2003, op. cit., 51 ff.; Descœudres, 1993, op. cit., 165–78.
180 Brion, 1973, op. cit., 53; Gusman, 1900, op. cit., 19; Trevelyan, 1976, op. cit., 39. 181 Corti, 1951, op. cit., 134; Dyer, 1883, op. cit., 47; Jashemski, 1979b, op. cit., 612–15; Leppmann, 1968, op. cit., 74; Richardson, 1988, op. cit., 25–27; Russell, 1985, op. cit., 6; Ward-Perkins and Claridge, 1980, op. cit., 14.
182 For example by Bullard, 1984, op. cit., 202; M.G. Cerulli Irelli, ‘Intorno al problema della rinascita di Pompei’,in
Neue Forschungen in Pompeji
, ed. Andreae, B. and H. Kyrieleis. Recklinghausen: Aurel Bongers, 1975, 292; Corti, 1951, op. cit., 82; De Carolis and Patricelli, 2003b, op. cit., 106; Gusman, 1900, op. cit., 22; Jashemski, 1979b, op. cit., 612; and Ward-Perkins and Claridge, 1980, op. cit., 14.
183 Various scholars have suggested that the highest parts of some structures were still visible after Vesuvius erupted. For example, Bullard, 1984, op. cit., 202; Cerulli Irelli, 1975, op. cit., 292; Corti, 1951, op. cit., 82; Gusman, 1900, op. cit., 22; Jashemski, 1979b, op. cit., 612; and Ward-Perkins and Claridge, 1980, op. cit., 14. Descœudres examined the literature and concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support this view. Allison, 2004, op. cit., 23; Descœudres, 1993, op. cit., 167–69.
184 Corti, 1951, op. cit., 89; Leppmann, 1968, op. cit., 48; F.L. Sutherland, ‘The volcanic fall of Pompeii’,in
Pompeii Revisited: The Life and Death of a Roman Town
, ed. D. Harrison, D. Sydney: Meditarch, 1994, 72.
185 The same evidence has also been cited as indicative of post-earthquake abandonment. Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 18; Jashemski, 1979b, op. cit., 612; Parslow, 1995, op. cit., 113; Richardson, 1988, op. cit., 25–26; Ward-Perkins and Claridge, 1980, op. cit., 14. 186 Cooley, 2003, op. cit., 34.
187 Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 18; Allison, 2004, op. cit., 24; Grayson and Sheets, 1979; op. cit., 626; K. Neumann,
Rabaul: Yu Swit Moa Yet: Surviving the 1994 Volcanic Eruption
. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, 79–88. However, Allison cites evidence of looting, mostly for necessities like food and shelter, as well as some household goods, after the 1994 Rabaul eruption. Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 17–19, 37–39, Cooley, 2003, op. cit., 53–55 and Descœudres, 1993, op. cit., 167–71, have also reviewed the evidence for post-eruption disturbances to the site.
188 For example, by Jashemski, 1979b, op. cit., 612 and Ward-Perkins and Claridge, 1980, op. cit., 14.
189 Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 18; Cerulli Irelli, 1975, op. cit., 295.
190 Cerulli Irelli, 1975, op. cit., 295; Cooley, 2003, op. cit., 55; Jashemski, 1979b, op. cit., 613. 191 Cerulli Irelli, 1975, op. cit., 295.
192 From the skeletons associated with Skull Numbers 4, 7, and 9. See Fig. 1.2. Lazer, 1995, op. cit., 54–58; E. Lazer, ‘Resti umani scheletrici nella Casa del Menandro’,in
Menander: La Casa del Menandro di Pompei
, ed. G. Stefani. Milan: Electa, 2003, 66–67. 193 Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 19, 171; Maiuri, 1933, op. cit., 12; Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 19, 171. 194 For example, Descœudres, 1993, op. cit., 169–70.
195 Richardson, 1988, op. cit., 26–27.
196 Allison, 1992b, op. cit., 38; Allison, 2002, op. cit., 114; Parslow, 1995, op. cit., 113.

1 T.H. Dyer,
Pompeii: Its History, Buildings and Antiquities
. 2nd edn. London: George Bell & Sons, 1883, 479; G. Nicolucci, ‘Crania Pompeiana: Descrizione de’ crani umani rinvenuti fra le ruine dell’ antica Pompei’,
Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche,
Vol. 9, No. 10, 1882, 2.

2 A. Kosloski –Ostrow,
The Sarno Bath Complex: Architecture in Pompeii
’
s Last Years
. Monographie 4, Ministero per i Beni Culturali ed Ambientali, Soprintendenza Archeologia di Pompei. Rome: ‘L’Erma’ di Bretschneider, 1990, 10–11.

3 A. De Vos. and M. De Vos,
Pompei, Ercolano, Stabia
. Rome: Laterza, 1982, 58.
4C.D’Amore
et al
., ‘Primi risultati degli studi sull’antropologia Pompeiana del 79 d.C.’,in
La Regione Sotterrata dal Vesuvio: Studi e Prospettive, Atti del Convegno Internazionale 11
–
15 Novembre 1979
. Napoli: Università degli Studi, 1982, 928.
5 S. De Caro (Ex–director, Superintendency of Pompeii) to E. Lazer, 1988, personal communication.
6 See, for example, S.C. Bisel (Physical anthropologist, Herculaneum) to E. Lazer, 1988c, personal communication.
7D’Amore
et al.
, 1979, op. cit; C. D’Amore
et al
., ‘Primi risultati degli studi sull’antropologia Pompeiana del 79 d.C.’,in
La Regione Sotterrata dal Vesuvio: Studi e Prospettive, Atti del Convegno Internazionale 11
–
15 Novembre 1979
. Napoli: Università degli Studi, 1982, 927–43.
8 The fact that there will be loss or bias in all classes of archaeological evidence is well documented, for example S. Mays,
The Archaeology of Human Bones
. London: Routledge, 1998, 13–25, discusses these problems in relation to skeletal evidence.
9 For example, Bisel, 1988c, op. cit.
10 D’Amore
et al
., 1982, op. cit., 928.
11 M. Brion,
Pompeii and Herculaneum: The Glory and the Grief
. London: Cardinal, 1973/1960, 126. 12 D’Amore
et al.
, 1979, op. cit., 301.
13 The majority of the fieldwork for this project was carried out over five seasons, from 1986 to 1990, with additional field seasons in 1995 and 1996.
14 E. De Carolis and G. Patricelli.
Vesuvius,
AD
79: The Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum
. Translated by The J. Paul Getty Trust. Rome: ‘L’Erma’ di Bretschneider, 2003b, 110. 15 W. Leppmann,
Pompeii in Fact and Fiction
. London: Elek, 1968, 136.
16 Hester Lynch Piozzi 1789 Observations and Reflections made in the Course of a Journey through France, Italy and Germany II, London in: E.M. Moorman, ‘Literary evocations of ancient Pompeii’,in
Tales from an Eruption: Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis: Guide to the Exhibition
, ed. P.G. Guzzo. Milan: Electa, 2003, 27.
17 Quoted in De Carolis and Patricelli, 2003b, op. cit., 109.
18 This house is in the insula of the Menander.
19 De Caro, 1988, op. cit.
20 Ibid.
21 S.C. Bisel, ‘The skeletons of Herculaneum, Italy’,in
Wet Site Archaeology: Proceedings of the International Conference on Wet Site Archaeology, Gainesville, Florida, December 12
–
14, 1986; sponsored by the National Endowment for the Humanities and University of Florida
, ed. B.A. Purdy. Caldwell, New Jersey: Telford Press, 1988b, 208.
22 A.T. Chamberlain,
Demography in Archaeology
, Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 70; P. Drackett,
The Book of Great Disasters
. Berkshire: Purnell, 1977, 115; G. Luongo
et al
., ‘Impact of the
AD
79 explosive eruption on Pompeii, II: Causes of death of the inhabitants inferred by stratigraphic analysis and areal distribution of the human casualties’,
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research,
Vol. 126, Nos 3–4, 2003b: 169–200; G. Nicolucci, ‘Crania Pompeiana: Descrizione de’ crani umani rinvenuti fra le ruine dell’ antica Pompei’,
Atti della R. Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matematiche,
Vol. 9, No. 10, 1882, 1.
23 Strabo.
The Geography
. Translated by H.R. Jones, Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988, V, IV, 8; Pliny the Elder, ‘Natural Histories’,in
Loeb Classical Library
. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1938/1962, 3.60–62.
24 A 5 cm thick layer of dust covered the floor of the Sarno Baths. As it was partially the result of wind-borne dust from the site, it could not be permanently cleared without sealing the structure. Since the building was damp, the dirt often hardened around the bones which meant that its removal could be time-consuming. The Forum Baths were partially sealed and the disarticulated bones were stored on shelves. Nonetheless, a certain quantity of fine dust was able to enter the building and settle on the bones between visits. In addition to the annual deposit of dust, there was a build-up of excreta from animals which inhabited these buildings.
25 D’Amore
et al.
, 1982, op. cit., 928.
26 Ibid.
27 D’Amore
et al.
, 1979, op. cit.; D’Amore
et al.
, 1982, op. cit.
28 The bones were arbitrarily marked with consecutive numbers. A prefix was assigned which denoted the building in which the bone was housed (TF = Terme Feminile del Foro; TdS = Terme del Sarno). Sometimes an extra prefix was added which referred to either an exact location (e.g. BQ = Basket Q) or a recently excavated skeleton of known provenance (NS 84 = Nuovo scavo 1984).
29 D’Amore
et al.
, 1982, op. cit., 928.
30 A.T. Chamberlain,
Demography in Archaeology
, Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 89; T.I. Molleson, ‘The archaeology and anthropology of death: What the bones tell us,’ in
Mortality and Immortality: The Anthropology and Archaeology of Death
, ed. S.C. Humphreys and H. King. London: Academic Press, 1981, 20–21; H.V. Vallois, ‘Vital statistics in prehistoric population as determined from archaeological data’,in
The Application of Quantitative Methods in Archaeology
, ed. R.F. Heizer and S.F. Cook. Chicago: Quadrangle, 1960, 186.
31 Compare with D.R. Brothwell,
Digging up Bones: The Excavation, Treatment and Study of Human Skeletal Remains
. 3rd edn. London: British Museum (Natural History) & Oxford University Press, 1981/1965, 78, Fig. 4.1. Long bone and some pelvic measurements (maximum iliac breadth in juveniles) were made using an osteometric board based on the design in Brothwell (1981: 78). Vernier callipers were also used for some long bone measurements. Maximum circumference of long bone measurements were made with a 3– metre plastic tape measure that was cut into 25 cm strips. The strips were all calibrated to ensure there was no difference between them. Each strip was replaced as soon as evidence of stretching was observed. Skull measurements were made with a pair of spreading callipers. To ensure stability whilst it was being measured, the skull was placed on a bean bag.