The New Penguin History of the World (226 page)

city-state

Greek
polis
,
179
–81,
188
,
214

Aristotle on,
206
,
221

in early Africa,
479

Italian,
509
–10

civilization

origins of,
35
–6,
41
–2,
45

definitions,
41
–2,
44
,
674

early,
41
–8

variety of,
43
–5

diffusion of,
106
,
148

integration in Near East,
159
–60,
164

Indian world-view,
431
,
432
,
433

medieval Church domination,
490
–2,
539
–40

post-medieval world-view,
539
–40,
541

Europeanizing of world,
631
,
789
–93,
795

revolutionized by industrialization,
708
–9

civil rights campaign, US,
1100

class structure and consciousness

in Japan,
471
–4,
844
–5

in medieval Europe,
519
–22;
see also
feudalism

in early modern Europe,
563
–6

in Russia,
618
,
624
–5

revolutionary element in France,
730

socialist egalitarianism,
758
–60

Marx’s view,
760

British stratification,
782
,
786

Comintern doctrine on,
952

Claudius (10
BC
–
AD
54), Roman emperor (
AD
41–54),
248

Clemenceau, Georges (1841–1929), French statesman,
903

Clement of Alexandria, St (
fl
.
c.
AD
96), Christian Platonist,
274
,
284

Cleopatra (
c.
68–30
BC
), queen of Egypt, (51–30
BC
),
218
,
243
,
245

clergy

early medieval,
412
–16

medieval,
492
–3

legal immunity of,
495

training revivified,
536
,
541

anti-clericalism,
574
–6,
646
,
675
,
697
,
803
,
875

climate

effect on evolution,
4
–6,
22
,
47

Egypt,
67

India,
120

China,
133

Africa,
149
–50

fears over global warming,
1025
–6,
1184
–5

see also
Ice Ages

Clinton, Bill (1946–), US president,
1167
–8,
1168
–9,
1170
,
1170
–71,
1172
–3,
1185

Clive, Robert (1725–74), British imperialist,
640

clocks,
461
,
464
,
681
–2,
831
,
842

Clovis (465–511), king of the Franks (481–511),
302
–3,
305
,
314

Cluny, Cluniac monasteries,
415
,
491

coal,
1007

in China,
458

for smelting iron,
710

Cobden, Richard (1804–65), British statesman,
717
–18

Cold War,
988

ideological content,
976
–7,
1040

Berlin blockade,
1041
–3

Korean War,
1044
–5

split in world economy,
1046

Asia and,
1051

see also
Cuba

Colombia,
1082

US intervention,
805

and Panama,
829

colonization

Phoenician,
105
,
184

Greek,
172
–3,
178
,
184
–5

Norse,
406
–9

demography and,
555
,
648
,
798

early modern European,
630
–56

in Africa and Asia, (Portuguese),
632
–3,
634
–5; (Dutch),
635
–7; (British),
637
–41

in Americas, (Spanish),
641
–7,
656
; (French),
647
,
649
,
650
,
653
; (British),
648
–55; (Dutch),
650
–1

economic effects of,
655

political effects of,
656

early economic theory and,
657
–9

cultural effects of,
789
–92,
859
–60

of Australasia,
806
,
810
–11

of S. Africa,
807
–8,
811

see also
British Empire; imperialism

colour problems
see
racial issues

Columbus, Christopher (1451–1506), Italian explorer,
533
,
534
,
641

Comecon,
976
,
1106

Cominform,
976
,
1093

Comintern (Third International)

communist spearhead,
905
,
976

in China,
922
,
924
,
926

preached class struggle,
952

commodities
see
economic organization; trade; individual commodities

Commodus (161–92), Roman emperor (180–92),
247
,
276
–7

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP),
1109
,
1155

communications

telegraph,
712
,
757
,
796
,
850

postal services,
784

diminish isolation,
796

population movements and,
798

telephone,
880

satellite,
1019

television,
1010
–11

advance in,
1028
,
1111
–13

the Internet,
1011

computers,
1011

see also
railways; shipping; transport

communism

fears of,
904
–7

economic policy split,
907
–8

Chinese Revolution and,
922
–6,
929
,
984

in Arab states,
941

in W. Europe,
952
,
966

in E. Europe,
966
,
974
,
975
–6,
1135
–43 (
see also
Russia)

in S.E. Asia,
986
–7

see also
Bolsheviks; Comintern; Marx; socialism

Comneni dynasty in Byzantium,
359

compass, magnetic,
458
,
464
,
532

computers,
1009
–10,
1011

Comte, Auguste (1797–1857), French sociologist,
882

concentration camps at Belsen and Buchenwald,
963

Confucius (
c.
550–478
BC
), shaper of Chinese thought

Confucianism,
143
–6

as conservative force,
145
,
917
,
930

values dominated Chinese state,
449
–52,
454

in Japan,
467
,
845

tablets attacked by Taipin,
835

Congo (Zaire),
1075

Belgians in,
825
,
826

conquistadores
,
642
,
667

Conrad I, king of E. Franks (911–18),
402

Constantine I ‘the Great’ (
c.
274–337), Roman emperor (306–37)

established Christianity,
286
–9,
350

reunited and reformed empire,
286
,
345

Constantine V (718–75), Byzantine emperor (740–75),
356

Constantine XI (1449–53), Byzantine emperor (1449–53),
388

Constantinople

Christian capital,
289
,
306
,
352

fall to Turks,
345
,
387
–8

Arab sieges,
351
,
353
–4

fall to Crusaders,
361
,
526

Constantius (
c.
225–300), Roman emperor in W. (305–6),
286

contraception

in Egypt,
80

early modern,
552

modern,
702
,
870
,
996
,
998
,
1027
,
1033

Cook, James (1728 –79), British explorer,
672
–3

Copernicus, Nicolaus (1473–1543), Polish astronomer,
683
,
684

copper,
29
,
35
,
58
,
67
,
83

in Yugoslavia,
91

in Near East,
113

in India,
121
,
127

in Europe,
155
,
156

Coptic church,
309

Corinth,
184
,
189

Corn Law repeal,
717
–18,
783
,
871

Cortés, Herman (1485–1547), Spanish soldier,
642
–3

Cossacks, semi-autonomous,
614
,
615

cotton

in ancient India,
122
,
279

trade in,
671

slavery and,
708
,
773
–4

factory processing of,
712

Japanese spinning,
845

councils

Nicaea (325),
288
,
350

Chalcedon (451),
309

Church: first ecumenical (1123),
494

Constance (1414–18),
501

Basle (1431–49),
501

Pisa (1409),
501

Florence (1439),
385
,
529

Siena,
501

Trent (1543–63),
581
,
584
,
670

Counter-Reformation,
581
–4

and politics,
585
,
594
,
611

and missionary enterprise,
670

creoles
,
645
,
800

Crete

ancient,
94
,
95
–100;
see also
Minoan civilization

taken by Turks,
388
,
610

autonomous,
871

united with Greece,
935

World War II and,
960

Croatia,
1144
,
1151

Croesus (d.
c.
546
BC
), king of Lydia,
177
,
185

Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658), English soldier-statesman,
587
,
660

crops
see
cereals

Crusades,
342
,
361
,
525
–7

fourth,
361
,
526

first,
375
–6,
494
,
525
,
526

response to Seljuk power,
376

third,
376
,
526

second,
525
–6

evoked by French imperialists,
938

Cuba

Europeans in,
641

independent,
803
,
805
,
829