Kachina and the Cross (60 page)

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Authors: Carroll L Riley

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Page 291
during the Middle Ages," pp. 33-50; chap. 2, E. Gutwirth, "Toward Expulsion: 1391-1492," pp. 51-73; and chap. 3, H. Kamen, "The Expulsion: Purpose and Consequence," pp. 74-91. For the ancestry of Beatriz de Estrada, see J. A. Esquibel, "The Jewish-Converso Ancestry of Doña Beatriz de Estrada,"
Genealogical Society of Hispanic America Journal
9 (4) (1997): 135-43. Shirley Cushing Flint (personal communication), who has also studied the Estrada family background, thinks that Beatriz had Jewish ancestors from two different bloodlines. For the Oñate ancestry, note the discussion in chap. 4.
For the order of custodians during this period in New Mexico, consult Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 1, pp. 141-42; for the ancestry of López de Mendizábal, see pp. 152-66. The quotes are on pp. 152 and 164 n. 1. This latter quote, on the ancestry of López, was drawn from the López testimony of April 28-30,
Primera audiencia de Don Bernardo López de Mendizábal
, Inquisición, tomo 594. The age of López comes from an Inquisición document dated April 28, 1663, in which he stated that he was "over forty years old." See Hackett,
Historical Documents,
vol. 3, p. 193. Doña Teresa, López's wife, was perhaps a year or so younger than her husband according to her statement in AGN, Inquisición, tomo 502. López's plan to join the priesthood is given in Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, p. 218. Additional biographical data can be found in Scholes,
Supply Service
, pt. 2, pp. 196-200 (material on Ramirez is contained in pp. 191-93); and in Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 119-230. The Jesuit educational activities in Mexico are discussed in Haring,
Spanish Empire
, pp. 228-29. For the uses of personal honor in New Mexico in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, see Gutiérrez,
When Jesus Came
, pp. 176-226.
The troubles between López and Ramírez are discussed in Scholes,
Supply Service
, pt. 2, pp. 196-98, and in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 2, pp. 153-55. This comes mainly from the trial evidence found in AGN, Inquisición documents 587 and 594. Additional material is found in the statement of Fray Nicolás de Freitas (Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 157-58). The quote in which López demanded treatment such as being offered the Blessed Sacrament is found in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 2, pp. 155, 165, and in the 1660 statement of Fray Joseph de Espeleta in Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, p. 147. López's encounter with Doña Luisa and Doña Isabel is discussed by J. P. Sánchez in
The Rio Abajo Frontier: 1540-1692
(Albuquerque Museum, History Monograph, Albuquerque, N.Mex., 1987), pp. 111, 148. Luisa's testimony is taken from AGN, Inquisición, tomo 593 (Apr. 30, 1662). The quote on ecclesiastical authority can be found in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 2, p. 157. The events brought about by Ramírez's return to Mexico are discussed on pp. 162-64.
Page 292
For a discussion of different "pesos," see L. H. Warner, "Conveyance of Property, the Spanish and the Mexico Way,
NMHR
6 (4) (1931): 334-59. Warner points out that, by at least the eighteenth century, several different "pesos" of eight, six, four, and two reales were used (337). Though it is hard to extrapolate from one Spanish province to another, the half-real wage given in New Mexico does seem to have been in the low range vis-à-vis other parts of the Spanish American empire. See R. K. Barber, "Indian Labor in the Spanish Colonies,"
NMHR
7 (2) (1932): 105-42;
NMHR
7 (3) (1932): 233-72;
NMHR
7 (4) (1932): 311-47. My colleague Richard Flint has pointed out that in some transactions the tomin was the gold equivalent to the silver real. For more information on cost of living in Spanish New Mexico, consult Scholes,
Civil Government
, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 103, 109; Warner,
Conveyance
, pp. 337, 339; Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 110, 120. Knaut (
Pueblo Revolt
, pp. 102-4), who generally accepts the traditional view that López de Mendizábal was an unmitigated scoundrel, suggests that the governor raised Indian wages to gain better access to the native workforce. Such an action would seem to me a curiously circuitous way of attaining this goal.
For the cycles of dry and wet years, see S. Herr and J. L. Clark, "Patterns in the Pathways: Early Historic Migrations in the Rio Grande Pueblos,"
Kiva
62 (4) (1997): 365-89, p. 372 (Palmer Drought Severity Indices for selected stations in northern New Mexico).
The decrees concerning the treatment of Indians were issued by Viceroy Diego Fernández de Córdova to both the current governor (Eulate) and the custodian (Perea) in January and February 1621; see Scholes,
Church and State
, chap. 3, p. 151. The Omnimoda argument is discussed by Scholes in
Troublous Times
, chap. 2, 156-57. A good discussion of López in relationship to Pecos Pueblo can be found in Kessell,
Kiva, Cross, and Crown
, pp. 174-84. For the petitions sent to the viceroy, see Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 2, pp. 161-64. Information on López's punitive raid of September 1659 and the counter-raids into Spanish territory is given in Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 187-88. For trade by López, see Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 3, p. 380. Trade in Humanas is discussed in the Inquisition hearings against Nicolás de Aguilar (Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, p. 135, drawn from AGN, Inquisición, tomo 512). The
residencia
of Juan Manso is contained in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 3, pp. 381-84. Kessell,
Kiva, Cross, and Crown
, pp. 178-83 has interesting information on González Bernal, taken in part from the López
residencia
. For identification of the Anaya Almazán encomiendas, see Snow,
Encomienda
, p. 354.
Information on Nicolás de Aguilar and on Catalina Márquez can be found in Chávez,
Origins
, pp. 1, 69-70. The trials of Aguilar and his three colleagues by
Page 293
the Inquisition are discussed in detail in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 8, pp. 392-414. The story of Romero on the Plains is given in Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 155-56, 161. For comments on Apache marriage ceremonies, at least in later historic times, see Opler,
Apachean Culture Pattern
, p. 370. Speculation on the Calumet Ceremony comes from D. J. Blakeslee, "The Origin and Spread of the Calumet Ceremony,"
American Antiquity
46 (4) (1981): 759-68. Information on the later life of Romero comes from J. L. Kessell, "Diego Romero, the Plains Apache and the Inquisition,"
American West
15 (3) (1978): 12-16. The quote about Aguilar's poise in front of the Inquisition is found in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 8, pp. 399-400. For the Timucua dictionary, see Swanton,
Southeastern Indians
, pp. 829, 849. Aguilar's alleged lack of literacy is referred to in Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, p. 146. Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 5, p. 67, gives the list of livestock claimed lost by the Franciscans. For the fate of the four captains of López who also were tried by the Inquisition, see Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 6, 249-52; chap. 8, pp. 392-401. Chávez,
Origins
, pp. 1-2, 35-37, 69, 87 95-98; Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 137-47. Various of these documents are to be found in AGN, Inquisición, tomo 512. The friars' financial claims against López are discussed in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 5, pp. 66-67.
For details of the López de Mendizábal library, see Adams and Scholes,
Books in New Mexico
, pp. 262-64. Arrangement of Bernardo and Teresa's living quarters in Santa Fe comes from AGN, Inquisición, 244 and 246; see also Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 224-25. Other evidence is given by López de Mendizábal and Doña Teresa de Aguilar at various Inquisition hearings. See Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 7, pp. 378-88; also see Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 224-25 (material contained in AGN, Inquisición, 594, 243-55). Sexual accusations against both the clergy and against López can be found in Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 214-16, 218, 225. See also comments in Riley,
Rio del Norte
, pp. 262-63. Specific information on López's affairs can be seen in Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, p. 225, and in Chávez,
Origins
, pp. 4, 31, 94, 100.
Various descriptions of the "catzinas" by Franciscans, settlers, and by López himself are scattered through the documents. See Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 133, 134, 137, 142, 146, 152, 157-58, 159, 164, 165, 166, 172-73, 174, 176, 177-78, 179-80, 182, 183, 184, 185, 208-9, 222, 223-24. Quotation and paraphrase of the material on kachina dances are drawn from Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 133, 134, 157, 158 (Freitas), 152 (Chávez), 165 (Santander), 177-78, 179-80 (Domínguez), 180 (Valencia), 223-24 (López). Regarding various aspects of the kachina cult in historic times, consult Parsons,
Pueblo Indian
Page 294
Religion
, vol. 1, pp. 42, 52-53, 87, 108, 150, 155, 236 n., 257, 474-76. Information on Clemente's later tragic career is given in the declaration of Diego López Sambrano (Hackett and Shelby,
Revolt
, vol. 2, pp. 299-300). Also consult J. L. Kessell, "Esteban Clemente, Precursor of the Pueblo Revolt,"
El Palacio
86 (4) (1980-81): 16-17; Sánchez,
Rio Abajo Frontier
, pp. 131-32; and Knaut,
Pueblo Revolt
, pp. 166-67.
For the counterattack on López, see Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 4, pp. 434-39. For Ramírez's own problems with the Church, see chap. 3, p. 442. The escape of ex-governor Manso and his subsequent testimony to the viceregal officials and the Inquisition are discussed in chap. 3, pp. 383-84. The attempts of López to get information to the viceroy can be found in chap. 4, pp. 438-41. The López residencia is discussed in great detail in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 5, pp. 71-79. For Posada's actions against López and Doña Teresa, see chap. 4, pp. 445-51. For Manso's appointment as chief constable of the Inquisition, see chap. 6, p. 449. López's imprisonment at Santo Domingo and his trip south to Mexico City are vividly described in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 6, pp. 263-68. The quotations by the ex-governor can be found on pp. 263 and 264-65, respectively. The ethnic purity of the common people compared to the nobility in Spain is discussed by Ramsey,
Spain: Rise of the First World Power
, pp. 98-100. The remarks to Fray Salvador Guerra are taken from Guerra's
Certificación
, dated August 15, 1662, in AGN, Inquisición, 587. The story of the trial of Bernardo and Doña Teresa is brilliantly told in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 7, pp. 369-91.
Chapter 11, The Gathering Storm
A discussion of Peñalosa's background is found in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 5, pp. 63-64; see also P. Gerhard,
A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain
(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 1972), pp. 386-88; and Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 257-58. The collection of López's assets by Peñalosa is discussed in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 6, pp. 254-63. The events of late August 1662, are described in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 6, pp. 255-58. For Doña Teresa's part in these proceedings, see AGN, Exp. 1, Inquisición, 596. The Posada-Peñalosa controversy is detailed in Scholes,
Troublous Times
, chap. 9, pp. 15-40; see also Hackett,
Historical Documents
, vol. 3, pp. 250-54. Parenthetically, Posada's name is sometimes given as Alonzo de Posadas. I have followed Scholes transcriptions here except in direct quotes. For Peñalosa's redistribution of encomiendas, see pp. 33-34. A copy of the document appointing Juan Domínguez escudero in 1662 still exists (see Scholes Collection, CSWR, ms. 360, box 11, folder 1, Baltasar

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