Quitting (previously published as Mastering the Art of Quitting) (29 page)

“The Superstitious Pigeon”
:
B. F. Skinner, “Superstition in the Pigeon,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology
38 (1938): 168–172.

the article published in the
Atlantic
:
Anne-Marie Slaughter, “Why Women Still Can't Have It All,”
Atlantic
, July–August 2012,
www .theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/07/why-women-still-cant -have-it-all/309020
.

That's the point William Bridges makes:
William Bridges,
Transitions: Making Sense of Life's Changes
(New York: Da Capo Press, 2004), 116–117.

why it's so hard to clear your mind:
Ezequiel Morsella, Avi Ben-Zeev, and Meredith Lanska, and John A. Bargh, “The Spontaneous Thoughts of the Night: How Future Tasks Breed Intrusive Cognitions,”
Social Cognition
, 28, no. 5 (2012): 640–649.

what science knows about moods, especially mystery moods?:
N. Pontus Leander, Sarah G. Moore, and Tanya L. Chartrand, “Mystery Moods: Their Origins and Consequences,” in
The Psychology of Goals
, ed. Gordon B. Moskowitz and Heidi Grant (New York and London: Guilford Press, 2009), 480–504.

what Tanya Chartrand and her colleagues call a “nonconscious” goal:
Tanya L. Chartrand, Clara Michelle Cheng, Amy L. Dalton, and Abraham Tesser, “Nonconscious Incidents or Adaptive Self-Regulatory Tool?”
Social Cognition
28, no. 5 (2010): 569–588.

Chapter Seven: Mapping Your Goals

For years, many books and talks:
The scoop on this is reported by Sid Savara, “Writing Down Your Goals: The Harvard Written Goal Study; Fact or Fiction?” Personal Development Training with Sid Savara, Web page, accessed 17 June 2013,
http://sidsavara.com/personal-productivity/fact-or-fiction-the-truth -about-the-harvard-written-goal-study
.

a study done in 2011 at McGill and Toronto Universities:
Dominique Morisano et al., “Setting, Elaborating, and Reflecting on Personal Goals Improves Academic Performance,”
Journal of Applied Psychology
85, no. 2 (2010): 255–264.

As described by psychologists Richard M. Ryan and his colleagues:
Richard M. Ryan, Kennon M. Sheldon, Tim Kasser, and Edward L. Deci, “All Goals Are Not Created Equal: An Organismic Perspective on the Nature of Goals and Their Regulation,” in
The Psychology of Action
, ed. Peter M. Gollwitzer and John A.
Bargh (New York and London: Guilford Press, 1996), 1–26. See also Kennon M. Sheldon, Richard M. Ryan, Edward L. Deci, and Tim Kasser, “The Independent Effects of Goal Contents: It's Both What You Pursue and Why You Pursue It,”
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
30, no. 4 (April 2004): 475–486; Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, “The ‘What' and ‘Why' of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior,”
Psychological Inquiry
13, no. 4 (2000): 227–268.

In a study called “Further Examining the American Dream”:
Tim Kasser and Richard M. Ryan, “Further Examining the American Dream: Differential Correlates of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Goals,”
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
22, no. 3 (March 1996): 280–287.

One such principle is that of
flow
:
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi,
Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience
(New York: Harper Perennial/Modern Classics, 2008).

the “autotelic experience”:
Ibid.,67.

“if they are lucky”:
Ibid.

The optimal experience of flow:
Ibid., 53–66.

The skill we should rely on
:
Gabriele Oettingen and Peter M. Gollwitzer, “Strategies of Setting and Implementing Goals: Mental Contrasting and Implementation Intentions,” in
Social Psychological Foundations of Clinical Psychology
, ed. J. E. Maddux and J. P. Tanguy (New York: Guildford Press, 2010), 114–135.

both indulging and dwelling yield only moderate goal commitment:
Gabriele Oettingen et al., “Turning Fantasies about Positive and Negative Futures into Self-Improvement Goals,”
Motivation and Emotion
29, no. 4 (December 2003): 237–267.

Using brain imaging:
Anja Achtziger et al., “Strategies of Intention Formation Are Reflected in Continuous MEG Activity,”
Social Neuroscience
4, no. 1 (2009): 11–27.

“suggesting that mental contrasting”:
Ibid., 23.

In a study of self-talk, Ibrahim Senay:
Ibrahim Senay, Dolores Abarracin, and Kenji Noguchi, “Motivating Goal-Directed Behavior Through Introspective Self-Talk: The Role of the Interrogative Form of Simple Future Tense,”
Psychological Science
21, no. 4 (2010): 499–504.

Chapter Eight: How to Quit Well

As Roy Baumeister and his colleagues write:
Roy F. Baumeister, Ellen Bratslavsky, Catrin Finkenauer, and Kathleen Vohs, “Bad Is Stronger than Good,”
Review of General Psychology
5, no. 4 (2001): 323–370. The quotation is on page 323.

As Dutch psychologists Marcel Zeelenberg:
Marcel Zeelenberg and Rik Pieters, “A Theory of Regret Regulation 1.0,”
Journal of Consumer Psychology
17, no. 1 (2007): 3–15; Rik Pieters and Marcel Zeelenberg, “A Theory of Regret Regulation 1.1,”
Journal of Consumer Psychology
17, no. 1 (2007): 29–35.

One of the first theories about regret:
Daniel Kahneman,
Thinking, Fast and Slow
(New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011), 346ff.

In his book
Thinking, Fast and Slow
:
Ibid., 348.

But this theory was challenged:
Thomas Gilovic and Victoria Husted Medvec, “The Experience of Regret: What, When, and Why,”
Psychological Review
102, no. 2 (1995): 379–395.

(The disagreement between Kahneman and Gilovic and Medvec:
Thomas Gilovic, Victoria Husted Medvec, and Daniel Kahneman, “Varieties of Regret: A Debate and Partial Resolution,”
Psychological Review
105, no. 3 (1995): 602–605.

Regrettable actions become less painful:
Gilovic and Medvec, “The Experience of Regret,” 387.

their
decision justification theory
:
Terry Connolly and Marcel Zeelenberg, “Regret in Decision Making,”
Current Directions in Psychological Science
11, no. 6 (December 2002): 212–216.

someone who drives home from a party:
Ibid., 213.

researchers Todd McElroy and Keith Dows found that action-oriented individuals:
Todd McElroy and Keith Dows, “Action Orientation and Feelings of Regret,”
Judgment and Decision Making
2, no. 6 (December 2007): 333–341.

Colleen Saffrey and her colleagues:
Colleen Saffrey, Amy Summerville, and Neal J. Roese, “Praise for Regret: People Value Regret Above Other Negative Emotions,”
Motivation and Emotion
31, no. 1 (March 2008): 46–54.

originally developed by Barry Schwartz
:
Barry Schwartz et al., “Maximising Versus Satisficing: Happiness Is a Matter of Choice,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
63, no. 5 (2002): 1,178–1,197.

The participants were administered a regret scale:
Ibid., 53.

believing that regret is positive may well be just a coping mechanism:
Ibid., 52.

the
psychological immune system
:
Daniel Gilbert,
Stumbling on Happiness
(New York: Vintage Books, 2007), 177–178.

Counterfactual thinking is different:
Kai Epstude and Neal J. Roese, “The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking,”
Personality and Social Psychology Review
12, no. 2 (May 2008): 168–192.

In an interesting meta-analysis:
Neal J. Roese and Amy Summerville, “What We Regret Most . . . and Why,”
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
31, no. 9 (September 2008): 1,273–1,285.

“Opportunity breeds regret”:
Ibid., 1274.

Marcel Zeelenberg and Rik Pieters:
Rik Pieters and Marcel Zeelenberg, “A Theory of Regret Regulation 1.1,” 33.

A study on rumination:
Annette van Randenborgh, Joachim Hüffmeier, Joelle LeMoult, and Jutta Joormann, “Letting Go of Unmet Goals: Does Self-Focused Rumination Impair Goal Disengagement?”
Motivation and Emotion
34, no. 4 (December 2010): 325–332.

we've all got to put down the duckie:
In case you don't know the segment, treat yourself here: “Sesame Street (Vintage): Put Down the Duckie,” YouTube, uploaded by Hellfrick, 24 August 2007,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=SMAixgo_zJ4
.

Chapter Nine: Resetting Your Inner Compass

As Charles S. Carver and Michael F. Scheier note:
Charles S. Carver and Michael F. Scheier,
On the Self-Regulation of Behavior
(Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 348.

As Robert A. Emmons explains, human beings don't experience:
Robert A. Emmons, “Striving and Feeling: Personal Goals and Subjective Well-Being” in
The Psychology of Action
, ed. Peter Gollwitzer and John A. Bargh (New York and London: Guilford Press, 1996), 314.

“people are more than just collections”:
Ibid., 331.

“the search for meaningfulness”:
Ibid., 3
33.

In his book
Flow
:
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi,
Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience
(New York: Harper Perennial/Modern Classics, 2008), 158–159.

Psychologist Patricia Linville:
Patricia W. Linville, “Self-Complexity and Affective Extremity: Don't Put All of Your Eggs in One Cognitive Basket,”
Social Cognition
1, no. 1 (1985): 94–120.

Linville hypothesizes:
Ibid., 97.

self-complexity as a cognitive buffer:
Patricia W. Linville, “Self-­Complexity As a Cognitive Buffer Against Stress-Related Illness and Depression,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
12, no. 4 (1987): 663–676. See also Erika J. Koch and James A. Shepherd, “Is Self-Complexity Linked to Better Coping? A Review of the Literature,”
Journal of Personality
72, no. 4 (August 2004): 727–760.

“the negative affect and self-appraisal”:
Ibid., 663.

In their classic book on self-regulation:
Carver and Scheier,
On the Self-Regulation of Behavior
, 348.

“a relatively stable, generalized expectation that good outcomes will occur”:
Carsten Wrosch and Michael F. Scheier, “Personality and Quality of Life: The Importance of Optimism and Goal Adjustment,”
Quality of Life Research
12, suppl. 1 (2003): 59–72.

Life Orientation Test:
Charles S. Carver, “LOT-R (Life Orientation Test—Revised),” University of Miami, Department of Psychology, Coral Gables, FL, accessed 1 July 2013,
www.psy.cmu .edu/faculty/scheier/scales/LOTR_Scale.pdf
.

Wrosch and Scheier assert:
Ibid., 69.

A highly influential argument by Peter M. Gollwitzer:
Peter M. Gollwitzer, “Action Phases and Mindsets,” in
Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundation of Social Behavior
, ed. E. Tory Higgins and Richard M. Sorrentino (New York and London: Guilford Press, 1990), 2: 53–92.

The researchers had participants name two personal problems:
Peter M. Gollwitzer, Heinz Heckhausen, and Heike Katajczak, “From Weighing to Willing: Approaching a Change Decision Through Pre- or Postdecisional Mentation,”
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes
45 (1990): 41–65. See also Inge Schweiger Gallo and Peter M. Gollwitzer, “Implementation
Intentions: A Look Back at Fifteen Years of Progress,”
Psicothema
19, no. 1 (2007): 37–42.

“nonconscious” thinking that sometimes gets in the way:
Peter M. Gollwitzer, “Implementation Intentions: Strong Effects of Simple Plans,”
American Psychologist
54, no. 7 (1999): 493–502. The quotation is on page 496.

As Gollwitzer, Ute C. Bayer, and Kathleen C. Molloch note:
Peter M. Gollwitzer, Ute C. Bayer, and Kathleen Molloch, “The Control of the Unwanted” in
The New Unconscious
, ed. Ran R. Hassin, James S. Uleman, and John A. Bargh (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 485–515.

the road to happiness:
Sonja Lyubomirsky, Kennon M. Sheldon, and David Schkade, “Pursuing Happiness: The Architecture of Sustainable Change,”
Review of General Psychology
9, no. 2 (2005): 111–131.

“These relatively weak associations”:
Ibid., 117.

“the hedonic adaptation tends to shuttle”:
Ibid., 118.

Sheldon and Lyubomirsky tested this hypothesis:
Kennon M. Sheldon and Sonja Lyubomirsky, “Achieving Sustainable Gains in Happiness: Change Your Actions, Not Your Circumstances,”
Journal of Happiness Studies
7 (2006): 55–86.

“only to the extent that one takes action”:
Ibid., 80
.

 

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